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Yuki Nagato

2009-04-10T00:16:00.000-07:00

Yuki Nagato is a fictional character in the Haruhi Suzumiya light novel series. She is initially portrayed as an introverted, taciturn bibliophile. She is actually an artificial human created by the Integrated Data Entity, and possesses supernatural powers as a result. She joins Haruhi Suzumiya's SOS Brigade in order to observe her on the behalf of the Integrated Data Entity. In addition, she is present to ensure that Haruhi does not use her godlike powers, and aids the other Brigade members in stopping forces that wish her to do so.

2008-05-02T08:10:00.000-07:00

Jimmy Johnson or Jim Johnson may refer to:

Jimmy Johnson (musician), guitarist, producer
Jimmy Johnson (American football) (born 1938), Pro Football Hall of Fame cornerback
Jim Johnson (football coach), Philadelphia Eagles defensive coordinator
Jimmy Johnson (American football coach) (born 1943), former Dallas Cowboys head coach
Jimmy Johnson (bassist)
Jimmy Johnson (cartoonist), creator of Arlo and Janis
Jim Johnson (baseball), MLB pitcher
Jimmie Johnson (born 1975), NASCAR race driver
Jimmie Johnson (American football) (born 1968), American football tight end

2008-05-01T08:07:00.001-07:00

All people who go by Bill, Billy, Willie, William, Will Smith, or any other variation are listed on this page. For the college in Geneva, New York, William Smith College.

People

William Smith (Medal of Honor) (born 1838, date of death unknown), American Civil War sailor and Medal of Honor recipient
William Smith (Medal of Honor, 1869), American Indian Wars soldier and Medal of Honor recipient
William Danvers Smith, 2nd Viscount Hambleden (1868 – 1928), known as Frederick Smith, was an officer in the British Army
William "Extra Billy" Smith (1797–1887), Governor of Virginia (1846–1849, 1864–1865) and Confederate general
William Farrar Smith, Union Army general
William H. Smith (Medal of Honor), American Indian Wars soldier and Medal of Honor recipient
William Osborne Smith (1833-1887), first Acting Commissioner of the North West Mounted Police
William S. Smith (1755-1816) Revolutionary War Colonel of the Continental Army, leader of a filibuster expedition to Venezuela, first United States Marshall of New York, and United States Congressman.
Sir William Sidney Smith (1764–1840), usually known as Sidney Smith, British admiral
William F. Smith 28 July,1945 Piloted the US Army Air Corps B-25 Billy Mitchell Bomber that crashed into the Empire State Building

2008-04-30T08:34:00.001-07:00

For other uses, see Pavlov (disambiguation).
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (Russian: Иван Петрович Павлов, September 14, 1849 – February 27, 1936) was a Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research pertaining to the digestive system. Pavlov is widely known for first describing the phenomenon now known as classical conditioning in his experiments with dogs.

Life and research
Pavlov contributed to many areas of physiology, neurology and psychology. Most of his work involved research in temperament, conditioning and involuntary reflex actions.
Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion which earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine
Carl Jung continued Pavlov's work on TMI and correlated the observed shutdown types in animals with his own introverted and extroverted temperament types in humans. Introverted persons, he believed, were more sensitive to stimuli and reached a TMI state earlier than their extroverted counterparts. This continuing research branch is gaining the name highly sensitive persons.
William Sargant and others continued the behavioral research in mental conditioning to achieve memory implantation and brainwashing.

2008-04-29T09:49:00.001-07:00

Abraham Lincoln was buried in Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, Illinois, where a 177-foot-tall granite tomb surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln was constructed by 1874. Lincoln's wife, Mary Todd Lincoln, and three of his four sons are also buried there (Robert Todd Lincoln is buried in Arlington National Cemetery).

Exhumation
All 23 of the people who viewed the remains of Mr. Lincoln have long since died. One of the last, a youth of 13 at the time, was Fleetwood Lindley, who died on February 1, 1963. Three days before he died, Mr. Lindley was interviewed. He said, "Yes, his face was chalky white. His clothes were mildewed. And I was allowed to hold one of the leather straps as we lowered the casket for the concrete to be poured. I was not scared at the time but I slept with Lincoln for the next six months."
Another man, George Cashman, also claimed to be the last living person to have viewed the remains of Abraham Lincoln. In the last years of his life, George Cashman was the curator of the National Landmark in Springfield called "Lincoln's Tomb." He particularly enjoyed relating his story to the more than one million visitors to the site each year. Mr. Cashman died in 1979.
His claim concerning the viewing of Abraham Lincoln's remains was later refuted when his wife, Dorothy M. Cashman, wrote a pamphlet entitled "The Lincoln Tomb." On page 14 of "The Lincoln Tomb," Mrs. Cashman writes, "At the time of his death in 1963 Fleetwood Lindley was the last living person to have looked upon Mr. Lincoln's face." In this statement, Cashman's wife admitted her husband was not present at the 1901 exhumation.

2008-04-26T09:18:00.000-07:00

Equivalent potential temperature, commonly referred to as Theta-e , is a quantity related to the stability of a column of air in the atmosphere.

θ e

is the temperature a parcel of air would reach if all the water vapor in the parcel were to condense, releasing its latent heat, and the parcel was brought adiabatically to a pressure of 100 kPa (1000 mbar), roughly equal to atmospheric pressure at sea level. In stable conditions,

θ e

increases with altitude. If

θ e

decreases with height, convection can occur. The comparison of the equivalent potential temperature of parcels of air at different pressures thus provides a measure of the instability of that column of air.

Explanation
Cool air is denser (heavier) than warm air (see Gas laws). Like a ball balanced on top of a hill, denser fluid lying above less dense fluid is dynamically unstable: if cool air is positioned above warm air, the former will sink and the latter will rise, the two volumes of air passing around and through each other, and perhaps mixing to some extent, until a stable condition (with denser fluid below and lighter fluid above) is achieved. The temperature near the ceiling of a room is consistently warmer than that near the floor.
If a stationary fluid is compressible, the criterion for dynamic stability is not simply that denser fluid must lie below light fluid, but that small perturbations must tend to correct themselves. When lower fluid is raised up into upper fluid, (during which process the density of the lower fluid decreases due to the drop in pressure), stability requires that it remain denser than the upper fluid, and therefore be pulled back toward its starting position by gravity. The fluid is unstable if small perturbations tend to amplify themselves, i.e. if dense lower fluid, when displaced upward, expands enough to become lighter than the surrounding upper fluid, and therefore continues to move upward.

Stability
In the atmosphere, where vertical variation in pressure is much larger than in a room, the situation is complicated by adiabatic temperature change: as a parcel of air moves upward, the ambient pressure drops, causing the parcel to expand. Some of the internal energy of the parcel is used up in doing the work required to expand against the atmospheric pressure, so the temperature of the parcel drops, even though it has not lost any heat. Conversely, a sinking parcel is compressed and becomes warmer even though no heat is added.
Air at the top of a mountain is usually colder than the air in the valley below, but the arrangement is not unstable: if a parcel of air from the valley were somehow lifted up to the top of the mountain, when it arrived it would be even colder than the air already there, due to the adiabatic cooling; it would be heavier than the ambient air, and would sink back toward its original position. Similarly, if a parcel of cold mountain-top air were to make the trip down to the valley, it would arrive warmer and lighter than the valley air, and would float back up the mountain.
So cool air lying on top of warm air can be stable after all (as long as the temperature decrease with height is less than the adiabatic lapse rate); the dynamically important quantity is not the temperature, but the potential temperature: the temperature the air would have if it were brought adiabatically to a reference pressure. The air around the mountain is stable because the air at the top, due to its lower pressure, has a higher potential temperature than the warmer air below.

Water vapor
The formula for

θ e

is the following:

Where:

T e

= equivalent temperature

T

= Temperature of air at pressure p

p

= pressure at the point (in same units as

p 0

)

p 0

= standard reference pressure (1000 mbar or 100 kPa)

R d

= specific gas constant for air (287 J/(kg·K))

c p

= specific heat of dry air at constant pressure (1004 J/(kg·K))

L v

= latent heat of evaporation (2400 kJ/kg {at 25 °C} to 2600 kJ/kg {at −40 °C})

r

= mixing ratio of water vapor in air See also

M K Yau and R.R. Rogers, Short Course in Cloud Physics, Third Edition, published by Butterworth-Heinemann, January 1, 1989, 304 pages. EAN 9780750632157 ISBN 0-7506-3215-1

2008-04-25T10:35:00.001-07:00

Edgewater is a north Chicago, Illinois, community seven miles north of downtown bordering the neighborhoods of Rogers Park to the north, Uptown to the south, Lincoln Square to the west and south and West Ridge to the west and north. As one of Chicago's 77 community areas, Edgewater is bounded by Foster on the south, Devon on the north, Ravenswood on the west, and Lake Michigan on the east. Edgewater contains several beaches that residents enjoy in the warm months. Historically, Edgewater was once part of Lake View Township, an independent, self-governing suburb of Chicago.
Edgewater has the highest population density of any of the neighborhoods in Chicago. Also, affirming the reputation of Lakeview and its Lake View East Boystown enclave as being a center of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender culture, the zip code 60640, one of two zip codes in Edgewater (the other being 60660), has the highest concentration of gay and lesbian couples in the city, and fifth highest in the country.
Edgewater was first developed around the 1890s as a summer home for Chicago's elite. With the exception of pockets acknowledged as historic districts (like the Bryn Mawr Historic District), Edgewater (actually, Edgewater Beach) boasts a skyline of apartment buildings, condominium complexes, and mid-rise homes. Edgewater Beach is highlighted by two main corridors: North Winthrop Avenue and North Kenmore Avenue to Loyola University Chicago. Winthrop and Kenmore are rehabilitated areas with homes touched up to harken back to Edgewater's glory days.

Andersonville
Bryn Mawr Historic District
Edgewater
Edgewater Glen
Epic
Lakewood/Balmoral History
Developers began cutting down the dense woods in the area in the late 1880s to make way for future development. In 1885, Edgewater was given its name by its builder, John Lewis Cochran. He built the first residential subdivision in the area. After a few years, Edgewater was celebrated as a wonder as it became "the only electric lighted suburb adjacent to Chicago". Edgewater also gained fame as the celery-growing capital of America's Midwest.

Early settlers
In the early 1900s, Edgewater was regarded as one of Chicago's most prestigious communities. A prominent symbol of Edgewater's affluence was the Edgewater Beach Hotel, which opened in 1916 at 5349 North Sheridan. The famed pink hotel was demolished in 1968, though the remaining pink Edgewater Beach Apartments building is still a landmark at the north tip of Lake Shore Drive. The Edgewater building boom peaked in 1926 and property values reached their height in 1928. The burgeoning affluent population grew so much that developers expanded Edgewater and renamed a portion of the neighborhood community Uptown (which still exists today).

The turn of the century
Uptown's population declined in the 1950s as Chicago's suburbs were developed and opened, absorbing Chicago's middle and upper classes. With the flight of residents came disrepair and high crime rates for what once was one of the most affluent districts of Chicago.
In the 1980s, the Chicago Board of Aldermen and local business owners orchestrated a revival for the Edgewater community. Edgewater seceded from the Uptown community and once again called itself its own community. New businesses were brought into the community, old buildings were refurbished and homes touched up to harken back to Edgewater's past.

Revival
An unexpected influx of gay and lesbian residents has recently moved in and land values have skyrocketed. The community now boasts one of the largest gay and lesbian populations in the United States.
Kathy Osterman Beach (more commonly referred to as Hollywood Beach - named after Hollywood Ave where it is situated) is a hugely popular hangout for gay men and lesbians during the summer months.

Gay and lesbian community
The highrise condominiums that line Sheridan Rd. and the Lake were known to have large numbers of retired and elderly persons, many living on fixed incomes. The prices have been more affordable than Lake Shore Drive addresses farther south. Meanwhile, Kenmore and Winthrop streets a couple blocks west suffered in mixed conditions of poverty and crime that were a far cry from their prior prestige. Recognizing the value of lakefront living and access to the Red Line elevated train, an influx of new residents arrived. Many of Edgewater's new residents are from Africa and the former Yugoslavia. The area has a great density of Bosnian, Serb and Croat residents. These people, troubled by civil war and tough conditions in their homeland, have been encouraged to settle in the area. The city is known for accepting new, thriving enclaves of ethnicities in centuries past. This new settlement of Europeans is a modern revival of that tradition.
Meanwhile, Edgewater is also home to a large African community. Ethnic Ethiopians, newly independent Eritreans, and Nigerians live and socialize in Edgewater. Due to increased restrictions on the industry, taxis must park on main (non-residential) streets or spots with meters. Consequently, Broadway is often full of taxis parked there by their African immigrant operators. (The African community also extends farther north into the Rogers Park and Loyola University areas.) Walk the streets of Edgewater and one will mix with women in traditional African dress and Serbian grandmothers strolling with their grandchildren while the middle generation is out making a living in the new world of Chicago.
Native Americans, former Yugoslavians, Africans of every part, young hipsters, new parents, first-time homeowners, students and many more make their home in Edgewater.
Devon Avenue (pronounced somewhat like "De-VAHN") marks the northern boundary of Edgewater. Devon reflects the ethnic diversity of the Rogers Park community.

Neighborhoods
Andersonville is a neighborhood (located in the Edgewater community area) on the North Side of Chicago, about five miles (8 km) north-northwest of the city's downtown. Once a sleepy little village made up primarily of Swedish immigrants, Andersonville is now one of Chicago's most popular neighborhoods. The community is particularly known for its diversity, including a continued Swedish cultural presence led by the Swedish American Museum, the Swedish Bakery and other Swedish delicatessens. A significant number of Middle-Eastern businesses, a new influx of families with children, and a large gay and especially lesbian population also makes this a very diverse population (showcased in the 1994 lesbian themed movie Go Fish). It is also known for its unique commercial district, made up almost entirely of locally owned, independent shops, restaurants, cafes, taverns, a chocolatier, and service providers.
The approximate street boundaries of Andersonville are Magnolia Avenue to the east, Ravenswood Avenue to the west, Winnemac Avenue to the south, and Victoria Street to the north. The heart of the Andersonville commercial district is the corner of Clark and Foster (5200 North Clark).
The main shopping street is North Clark Street, which runs roughly north-south. The stretch of North Clark Street south of West Foster Avenue (where Andersonville has expanded across community boundaries into northern Uptown) is sometimes called South Foster, or SoFo. Some maps show the entire stretch between Foster and Lawrence as Andersonville Terrace; although this name is seldom used by residents, realtors have recently started using it again for the area as far south as Argyle Street, in an attempt to capitalize on Andersonville's popularity. The stretch north of Bryn Mawr still retains a good number of Hispanic-owned business as well as some restaurants and cafes serving Andersonville's more recent transplants.
As reported in the Chicago Reader, in 2006 merchants along North Clark Street have seen significant increases in commercial property taxes, causing these independent shops to struggle. Though the residential property taxes have risen in the area, they have not skyrocketed like the commercial district in downtown Andersonville.

Sheridan Road
Sheridan Road runs parallel to Lake Michigan, and is the eastern most north/south boundary of Chicago's Edgewater neighborhood. Named for Philip Henry Sheridan, a general in the Civil War, the road was originally approved by Congress (circa 1832) as a military road from Fort Dearborn in Chicago to Fort Howard in Green Bay, Wisconsin. Today, it is a primary thoroughfare for commuters southbound from Evanston (Chicago's nearest northern suburb), and the neighborhoods of Roger's Park and Edgewater, intersecting with Hollywood Avenue and feeding Lake Shore Drive to downtown Chicago.
The section of Sheridan Road between Hollywood Avenue (5700 N) and West Sheridan Road (6400 N) has been referred to as the "condo canyon" owing its monicker to the high-rise residential buildings lining both sides of the street including Hollywood Towers, The Malibu, Malibu East, Eastpoint Tower, The Tiara, Granville Beach, Shoreline Towers & Sheridan Point. Most of these towers were built between the late 1950's and mid 1970's. Many offer balconies, some buildings even have private beaches. TV's Bob and Emily Hartley of The Bob Newhart Show called this area home, residing in the Thorndale Beach Apartments, 5901 N. Sheridan Road.
Loyola University recently (2006) completed a well-known restoration of one mansion, Piper Hall, built in 1909 of Vermont statuary marble (originally built for Albert & Cassie Wheeler by architect W.C. Zimmerman) [1], located on the shoreline of Lake Michigan, incorporating a water-feature park that forms the entrance to its lakeshore campus at the juncture of Sheridan Road and West Sheridan Road. The City of Chicago has also assisted in the restoration of several of these mansions located in Berger Park, a nearly one block area on the Lake Michigan lakeshore at Granville Beach (6200 N to 6223 N), incorporating them into the City's Parks Department
Sheridan Road continues northward to the Illinois-Wisconsin border at Winthrop Harbor.

Edgewater Presbyterian Church

2008-04-24T08:14:00.000-07:00

Sons of Ben is the name of two different groups of followers:
Sons of Ben (literary group), term applied to followers of Ben Jonson in English poetry and drama in the first half of the seventeenth century.
Sons of Ben (MLS fan club), are an independent fan club for the long-anticipated Major League Soccer franchise for the city of Philadelphia.

2008-04-23T09:42:00.001-07:00

Cognitive neuropsychiatry is a sub-discipline of psychology and psychiatry that aims to understand mental illness and psychopathology in terms of models of normal psychological function. It is also a way of uncovering normal psychological processes by studying the effects of their change or impairment. It is derived from the fields of psychiatry, cognitive neuroscience, and cognitive neuropsychology.
It is a relatively new discipline and only started in earnest in the 1990s but has been influential, not least because of its early successes in explaining some previously mysterious psychiatric disorders, most notably the Capgras delusion and other delusional misidentification syndromes.

Further reading

Halligan, P.W. Marshall, J.C. (1996) Method in Madness: Case Studies in Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. Psychology Press. ISBN 0-86377-442-3
Halligan, P.W., and David, A.S. (2001). Cognitive Neuropsychiatry: towards a scientific psychopathology. Nature Neuroscience Review, 2, 209-215.

2008-04-22T08:49:00.001-07:00

The New Atlantis is a utopian novel written by Francis Bacon in 1626. It depicts a mythical land, Bensalem, to which he sailed, that was located somewhere off the western coast of the continent of America. He recounts the description by one of its wise men, of its system of experimentation, and of its method of recognition for inventions and inventors. In Bensalem, marriage and family are the basis of society and family ties are celebrated in state-sponsored holidays.
The best and brightest of Bensalem's citizens attend a college called Salomon's House, in which scientific experiments are conducted in Baconian method in order to understand and conquer nature, and to apply the collected knowledge to the betterment of society.

The riches of Salomon's House

There is evidence in Bacon's New Atlantis for both a secular and religious interpretation of a sailors' conversion. With a secular interpretation, the sailors are portrayed as being converted to believing in the ultimate superiority of science after their arrival in Bensalem. This may assume that the sailors were initially of a Christian faith, given the amount of evidence supporting a possibility. The sailors have too much knowledge of Christianity to not at least be from a Christian nation, and they incorporate elements of faith into their lives even before arriving in Bensalem. For example, when they are lost at sea in the beginning, the sailors "lift their hearts and voices to God above." When arriving in Bensalem, they immediately recognize a cross and are able to make enough Christian reference to subtly prove their Christianity to the Bensalemites.
After some time in Bensalem, they continue to outwardly display their Christianity, but science begins to take a superior position. When some of their crew are cured from their illnesses in Bensalem, it is science that earns a credit, not God or some other miraculous force. They learn about the wonders in a House of Salomon. Not only are these wonders all scientific, many of them explain scientific, secular reasons why so-called miracles can be possible without divine intervention. In addition, all of the residents, regardless of faith, love and respect a House of Salomon. In this fact, we see that science, not faith, is what brings people together and allow people to agree on what is universally deemed true. For the sailors, more knowledge of science brings about less faith in God.
Thus, a completely different interpretation can be taken of this conversion. It may be possible, given an evidence found in a text, that the sailors were never of a Christian faith to begin with. Instead, they could have landed on Bensalem from pure luck and then proceed to take advantage of a pious, Christian people. Secular vs. Religious conversion

The conversion of the sailors could be seen as a means for attaining a better life. The Sailors could, in fact, have been non-religious pirates who merely claimed to be pious people so as to benefit from the generosity and humanity of the Christian people of Bensalem. The men recognize the cross during the first encounter and their minds are put at ease knowing that the Bensalemite's are Christians. "To find that the people had languages and were so full of humanity, did comfort us not a little. And above all, the sign of the cross to that instrument was to us a great rejoicing, and as it were a certain presage of good." The sailors find happiness in the cross. One could interpret the meaning or purpose of the word "good." It is hard to conclude if the sailors are implying that the people of Bensalem are good, or if the future situation for themselves looks to be good. If the latter is the case, there is clearly an indication of selfish tendencies. Clearly Christianity reigns as the supreme sign of an auspicious future for the sailors note that "above all" the cross was a sign of rejoicing. There is no evidence to dismiss the possibility of the sailors being pirates. This would, yet again, imply a self-serving group of individuals rather than a "good" and "Christian" one.
Recognizing the Bensalemite's tradition of charity, the sailors willingly claimed to be a religious group of men so as to be welcomed without trouble or conflict. "…and with a loud voice in Spanish, asked, 'Are ye Christians?' We answered, 'We were,' fearing the less." The Sailors do not hesitate to profess their faith for they are fully aware of the benefits that could be reaped from a generous and charitable Christian society. There is yet again a sense of ambiguity behind the usage of "fearing the less." The sailors could be stating that they fear Christians less, for they know they could exploit their virtues for personal gain. Also, the past tense response "we were" rather than "we are" is troubling. There was no footnote indicating that this was a writing tool used during the 17th century. Although somewhat of a stretch, perhaps this implies uncertainty or a hint at a change or transition in the future.
Although they profess their faith in Jesus Christ, the leader of the Sailors reminds them, "We are men cast on land, as Jonas was out of the whale's belly, when we are but between death and life; for we are beyond both the old world and the new; and whether ever we shall see Europe, God only knoweth. It is a kind of miracle hath brought us hither: and it must be little less that shall bring us hence. Therefore in regard of our deliverance past, and our danger present and to come, let us look up to God, and every man reform his own ways. Besides we are come here amongst a Christian people. Full of piety and humanity: let us not bring that confusion of face upon ourselves, as to show our vices or unworthiness before them." The sailors do not wish to lose the trust of the Bensalemite's and in turn are reminded to reform their ways so as to not make a disturbance or bad impression. This quote indicates the sailors un-Christian tendencies and their apparent need to deceive the people of Bensalem. They are told by their captain to not "show their vices or unworthiness." Clearly these sailors have something to hide and are hoping to conceal their true nature in order to remain in favorable conditions on the island of Bensalem.
The sailors enjoy the benefits reaped from claiming to be pious people. The people of Bensalem provide the sailors with medicine to regain their health, with a place to stay and with all the food and drink they desire. By merely professing to believe in Christ, the Sailors are welcomed with open arms. An improved lifestyle is clearly apparent as a result of their being, or at least seeming, Christian. Secular Conversion
We are introduced to the sailors in a state of desperation. They are stranded in the middle of the ocean with no wind or victual. The sailors are prepared for death, yet they then move to "lift up [their] hearts and voices to God" – who apparently showeth his wonders in the deep. Their plea for mercy is answered by a symbolic gust of wind. At this point, we have no real reason to believe that the crew is not religious. Once the crew has arrived in port at Bensalem, and are initially frightened by the un-welcoming scene at the beach, they take note of the fact that the parchment was written in languages traditionally associated with religion: "Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Spanish." Upon receiving the parchment, the sailors take note of the "Cherubin" (A biblical figure with wings, human head, and an animal body) and especially the "Cross" at the bottom. These signs are to the sailors "a great rejoicing," implying that they would associate Christianity with good things." The first spoken words are of a Bensalemite asking "Are ye Christians," followed by a peculiar response with "We were." This unexplained change in tense could simply be an odd writing style, or perhaps the past tense of "were" could be an indication of uncertainty and thus of an impending conversion. Bacon's double negative rule is explained, yet this is not. The Bensalemites immediately react with a show of bliss. They are making an effort to make the sailors believe that they are devout Christians. The sailors make an oath that they are not pirates and that they haven't killed within forty days, and do so while acting as "humble servants." The Bensalemites subsequently make various comments to the extent of honoring the oath "by the name of Jesus and his merits" and suggesting their good Christian nature by explaining the "twice paid" concept." The sailors then decree that "God would reward" the welcoming arms of Bensalem; which continues to suggest that the Sailors do seem to have a belief in God."
At this point, the sailors seem to think they are in a land comprised of archetypal Christians. They are lead to the House of Strangers to be accommodated, where some "principle men of our company" are posted in larger bedrooms whereas the majority of the crew is stationed in a large dormitory-type room. Thus Bacon begins his theme of Isolation (something quite contrary to Christianity, which endorses missionary work and outreach), which I will explain as we progress. The sailors are overwhelmed with the "humanity" of Bensalem, and Bacon writes that they claimed that "God is surely manifested in this land." It is at this point that the captain of the crew speaks to his sailors and likens their situation with that of Jonah and his entrapment in the "whale's belly." This biblical story is one that highlights a conversion: Jonah begins the story with a condescending view of God, only to be subsequently imprisoned and bewildered by the power of God. By the end, Jonah believes that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent. Bacon uses this particular story on purpose, as it reflects a conversion beginning to take place with the sailors; however, it is almost the exact opposite of what Jonah depicts. The captain implores his crew not to "show our vices" to the Bensalemites, who they believe to be "a Christian people, full of piety and humanity." They all see Bensalem as a paradise, and the captain urges his crew to behave "for God's love," illustrating Bacon's continued attempt to suggest that the crew are Christian.
After 3 days of isolation, the Governor (who is also a priest by vocation) arrives to speak with the crew. Bacon describes them as receiving the priest "in a lowly and submissive manner," maintaining the theme of the crew's Christian humility. The governor claims that he comes to speak and offer service to the crew "mainly as Christians." This deliberate claim serves to suggest to the crew that Bensalemites favor Christians above all others. After a brief explanation of the sailor's situation on Bensalem (including a rule that would force the crew to be essentially isolated in the city), the sailors are left speechless in admiration. They feel as though they are under a "commandment" (Christian undertones with that particular word choice) and considered Bensalem a "happy and holy ground." Also call it a "land of angels" and a model of excellence for any country.
The Governor arrives the next day, only to speak with an audience of 10 of the crew's 51 people this time, since the remaining 41 "were of the meaner sort" (P.46). This indication that the others were of lower class and thus lower education hints at the fact that the Bensalemite Governor isolates the more intelligent of the crew members to hear the actual detailed history of Bensalem, etc…the rest are left to ponder the reality while still under suspicion of devout Christianity. This will be a vital fact as we progress. The 10 crew members make a mention that both they and the Bensalemites were "both parts Christians," and then ask a question concerning the apostle who brought Christianity to Bensalem. Having been shown what appears to be a keen and genuine concern for the situation of Bensalem's Christianity, the Governor remarks that such a question shows that the crew "first seek[s] the kingdom of heaven," insinuating that that is the highest and most noble route. Thus far, both sides APPEAR Christian. The story of the pillar of light is then told. The story's climax concerns the lone member of the House of Salomon who decrees that the pillar of light is a miracle of God and that He has blessed the people and besought them to make progress in knowledge with His works. Interesting to note is that this story is explained with scientific fact later on in the story, and that the only member at the site when it occurred who knew of the technology (the member of the House of Salomon) was the one who deemed it a "true Miracle." The member deceived the people of Renfusa (meaning "sheep-like," implying both the Herd of God but also highlighting the stupidity of the animals and how easily they can be controlled and swayed) with a veneer of Christianity. The crew is astonished at this miraculous story.
Later on, the governor hails Bensalem as "angelic" rather than "magical," and takes what seems like offence to questions concerning their isolation. All the while, the entranced sailors are still very mindful of the "rare humanity" of these people, who seem so very Christian. The Governor then tells the ancient story of Atlantis, Coya, and Tyrambel: a story which eventually depicts the greatness of nations being dictated by their mastery over technology (shipbuilding, for example). This story segues into the introduction of King Salomona, who is described as having "a great heart" as the biblical King Solomon was also known to have. Salomona was a large advocate of isolating Bensalem, save for few exceptions. This Salomona is hailed as the greatest king that this utopian Bensalem has ever known, and his most excellent act was the "erection and institution of an Order or Society which we call Salomon's House," which essentially is a science guild that feigns Christian piety by claiming they are studying all of God's works and creatures. What is interesting is that Solomon was the first king ever to build a Temple of God, and Salomona built this first institution of knowledge and science – a very intriguing juxtaposition, marked with significant contrast. Another odd point was Salmona's apparent hatred of the Chinese, which would be simply a tactic to make Christianity seem the more superior; as this hatred is never really explained and could simply just be a way of making the non-Christians out to be cowards. It becomes evident that the acquisition of knowledge, or God's "Light" (to throw a religious spin on it), is of the highest import amongst these people. Once this elite group of 10 have told the remainder of the crew about their circumstances and ability to stay if they desired (an option which seems to have come about because of their apparent Christianity), it took "much ado" to keep the sailors from all rushing to the governor to declare their citizenship.
Bacon writes that the sailors all "took ourselves now for free men" in this idyllic Christian utopia, and all seemed to think that Bensalem was truly a paradigm of excellence for a country. It appears that the conversion amongst the masses has begun; they have fallen for an outward show of Christianity, only to soon be shown the harsh and contrasting reality of the matter. Bacon then describes the "Feast of the Family," which is a celebration of fruitfulness and continuity of the faith. This soon appears as nothing more than a propagation of a scandal; as the Christianity which seems to pervade Bensalem will shortly be undermined. A conversation with Joabin, a Jew without an "inbred rancour against the people amongst whom [he] live[s]," serves to suggest Bensalem's superiority over Europe in terms of virtue and morality and virginity. However, the people that Jaobin lives amongst are Christian, thus he must have rancour against them. HOWEVER, one thing that both the Jews and Christians are able to agree on is the SUPERIORITY OF THE HOUSE OF SALOMON. THEY CAN AGREE ON SCIENCE. Both of these events only allow 1 or 2 people to see, continuing this theme of isolation in Bensalem.
Finally, the ship's captain is called into an extremely private meeting with a member of the House of Salomon, who is ironically clad in priestly guise more than any other character thus far. It is ironic since this man appears more Christian than any other, yet he is about to essentially refute Christianity and every story of Bensalem's miraculous history with his explanations of their scientific prowess. Even he claims that the "knowledge of the Causes, and secret motions of things; and the enlarging of the bounds of Human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible" is what brought about the end of their foundation. The member explains how their small, clandestine circle of brethren possess this monumental knowledge; yet they do not share it with the common populace. The most intelligent have been isolated from the crowd to learn the scientific truth of reality/nature/existence and to hone their understanding of it; while the majority of the community is left in their blissful ignorance and radical Christianity. By doing so, this group is able to create and maintain a utopian society by creating a veneer of devout Christianity over the masses.
Since the Brothers of the HoS are so adamant in portraying their work as Christian in essence, the ignorant populace takes them for their word and live in an incredible harmony unbeknownst to the truth of their world. By the end, the captain has been given the truth and completed his conversion from Christianity to Science. He has seen the benefits of Christianity from an executive standpoint, and understands its capacity to maintain a truly remarkable and utopian society. While science is their backbone, Christianity is the responsible for their success. Bacon's juxtaposition of science with Christianity, isolation with outreach, Salomona with Solomon, and spoken word with reality (what they say as opposed to what they really do in Bensalem) creates a picture of a conversion indeed, but not one to Christianity. The conversion ultimately concerns the sailor's understanding of science as their reality, but Christianity as their tool to create and sustain paradise through the spreading of the Gospel and the containment of esoteric scientific knowledge. It is interesting that through Bacon's portrayal of science as the real answer, he illustrates the incredible power of Christianity and deception at the same time.

Arrival and Reception at Bensalem
House of Strangers/Story of Jonah
First Conversation with Governor
Further Conversation with Governor – Concerning Apostle of Bensalem
Conversation with Governor: King Salomona and Erection of Salomon's House
Conversion; Feast of the Family, Joabin
Final Meeting with Brother of House of Salomon
Conclusion Religious Conversion

There are two instances in "The New Atlantis" that include miracles. In both instances the miracles are simply illusions and events that could be explained by science with information not known to the people experiencing the miracles.
Perhaps the most important scene is the miracle that brings Christianity to Bensalem. In the scene a great beam of light with a cross at the top arises from the sea. The people sail to the beam of light, but are prevented from reaching the beam until a wise man of the House of Salomon recites a prayer. At this time his boat passes into the light and the he finds the canonical books of the Old and New Testament in a chest with a small green palm branch attached.
The entire event brings into question the legitimacy of the miracle and the Christian faith on the island. In a closer inspection of the event it appears as though the miracle is simply the product of the government and science.
The story starts off "About twenty years after the ascension of our Savior" (47). However, they receive the new testament in the chest, which was certainly not written twenty years after Christ's death.
The person that first prays and obtains the chest is not a priest, as would be expected in such circumstances. Rather, it is a wise man of Salomon's House, the source of science for the kingdom. Also, since he is the only one to approach the light there is a distinct possibility that the chest was already in his boat before approaching. Later in the story when you learn of the technology in Bensalem it becomes clear the potential is there for the government to concoct the miracle.
The prayer made by the wise man also brings into question the truth in the miracle. First he beings the prayer with "Lord God of heaven and earth." Language clearly associated with the Christian faith, yet the discovery of The Bible had not yet occurred. This contradiction suggests the House of Salomon had knowledge of these books before their "discovery" in this scene.
The man's speech also sounds as though the entire event is set up. He first states they work to "discern between divine miracles, works of nature, works of art, and impostures and illusions of all sorts" (48). He then goes on to "testify" that this event is "thy Finger and a true Miracle" and that they learn in their "books that thou never workest miracles but to a divine and excellent end." This progression of statements undoubtedly shows the intent of the wise man to establish the greatness of God and the importance of the forthcoming works.
Since there is substantial evidence that this miracle did not actually occur in the fashion described, but was rather produced by the House of Salomon, the question of why becomes important. Bensalem is a civilization that revolves around science and relies on discoveries of the House of Salomon for success. They are united with the government and church to accomplish one thing. That is, to meet every need of each citizen and affirm the statement that "Happy are the people of Bensalem." Bensalem in Hebrew is a combination of words meaning son of peace, safety, and completeness. Therefore, the House of Salomon logically introduced the theology of Christianity because they felt it important to retain the harmony in society and the happiness of its citizens.
Bacon is making a significant statement in this miracle. By providing a scene that appears to be a miracle, but is not he establishes the superiority of science to religion. In that, miracles do not exist, but rather are events that cannot be explained using the technology at the given time (in this instance, the technology released to the masses). The miracle and ensuing Christianity is used simply as a device of science to wield control over the "sheep-like" citizens (in Greek, Renfusa, the name of the people who discovered the miracle means "sheep-like"). The scientists, upon realizing the need for a unique spiritual connection in people, introduced Christianity after finding it in the outside world. In a society where every citizen's needs are met, the wise men still choose to bring religion into society. In doing so, Bacon is remarking on the nature of man to naturally yearn for the comfort found in religion. Bensalem is a society where science dominates the presence of religion; however, no matter how strong science is it needs and relies on religion in order to retain a functional society.
The other instance of a miracle occurs earlier in the story. After realizing the greatness of the island the captain exclaims "it is a kind of miracle hath brought us hither: and it must be little less that shall bring us hence." In this case a work of science is again mistaken for a miracle. As discovered later in the story the House of Salomon possesses control over the weather and is responsible for this supposedly divine path taken by the sailors. In both instances an act that appears as a divine miracle is in truth the work of science. Miracles
First, it must be established that light is a direct symbol for knowledge in Bacon's New Atlantis. Aside from the fact that light is often a literary motif for knowledge, Bacon establishes the connection when he describes those who "bring [Bensalem] the books and abstracts, and patterns of experiments of all other parts" as Merchants of Light. Furthermore, he labels those who "direct new experiments, of a higher light, more penetrating into nature than the former" as "Lamps."
Examples of light in the New Atlantis:
The governor explains to the visitors how Christianity came to their country. The books of the Old and New Testament were found in a pillar of light. Here light represent knowledge which is brought to the people in the form of the bible. It goes to show that religion could not exist without knowledge. Knowledge in "The New Atlantis" is represented through advancements in science. Bacon is saying that the two would not exist without the other. When the light dissipates it illustrates that knowledge can never be full controlled or in the grasps of man. Subsequently it is corrupt for the House of Solomon to decide what knowledge they release to their population and what the withhold.
In this passage, the sailors are lost and running out of supplies. They are hoping to discover an island because the waters are relatively unknown. In this passage "not come to light" means not revealed or discovered. Again light takes on an aspect of knowledge. In this passage sailors have not yet reached Bensalem. From this outside perspective they assume that any island they discover will not have knowledge. Ironically, Bensalem is superior in knowledge. The island acts as the Tree of Knowledge for the sailors when the sailors discover that Bensalem is far complex in their knowledge.
Here the visitors are questioning how a country that is so unknown in location is able to have such a superior access of knowledge. It seems to the visitors that there must be divine intervention for Bensalem to have so many items and knowledge without traveling. Light again is used as knowledge and is compared with divine intervention. In other words, to have knowledge the country must have God. Thus religion and God are once again compared even though they are usually at odds with each other.
Salomon's House is a university of sorts. Lanthorn means light, so this society is the light of the kingdom. This makes sense because Salomon's House teaches knowledge, and knowledge is represented by light. In the story of Salomon, God gave Salomon his wisdom. The pupils of the House of Salomon in turn decide what wisdom to share with the Bensalemites. Although this society proclaims good, because it sheds light on God, These so called wise-men are in complete control of knowledge. This seems that although the country believes that science and God are intertwined, perhaps they are being misled.
"We have also perspective houses, where we make demonstrations of all lights and radiations and of all colors; and out of things uncolored and transparent we can represent unto you all several colors, not in rainbows, as it is in gems and prisms, but of themselves single. We represent also all multiplications of light, which we carry to great distance, and make so sharp as to discern small points and lines. Also all colorations of light: all delusions and deceits of the sight, in figures, magnitudes, motions, colors; all demonstrations of shadows. We find also divers means, yet unknown to you, of producing of light, originally from divers bodies. We procure means of seeing objects afar off, as in the heaven and remote places; and represent things near as afar off, and things afar off as near; making feigned distances. We have also helps for the sight far above spectacles and glasses in use; we have also glasses and means to see small and minute bodies, perfectly and distinctly; as the shapes and colors of small flies and worms, grains, and flaws in gems which cannot otherwise be seen, observations in urine and blood not otherwise to be seen. We make artificial rainbows, halos, and circles about light. We represent also all manner of reflections, refractions, and multiplications of visual beams of objects."
The opening words of this quotation already allude to the manipulation that takes place in Bensalem by labeling the houses 'perspective houses.' The choice of the word perspective implies a particular point of view or perception that is most likely biased and wholly influenced by those that work in the 'perspective houses.'
The fact that those in the perspective houses are making 'demonstrations of all lights and radiations of all colors' indicates that they clearly have the ability to reveal all the aspects of the knowledge they have accumulated, whether they are bright, dull, dark, or cheerful. The perspective house also claims to be able to 'create several colors' out of things 'uncolored and transparent,' undoubtedly suggesting that they would willingly construct miracles out of nothing in order to satisfy their needs.
Here, the Father of Salomon suggests that they are not hesitant to allow their creation of light, or creation of knowledge, to affect all parts of Bensalem's culture, large and small; the light they create can 'carry a great distance' and 'discern small points.' The 'delusions and deceits' are an obvious allusion to the House of Salomon's many false miracles and revelations used on the people of Bensalem to regulate what knowledge they receive.
This section of the quotation incorporates the people of Bensalem directly as a way of producing knowledge from among themselves. However, the fact that these methods are unknown to some and that they are from the 'divers bodies,' suggests that they are devious and corrupt.
When the Father of Salomon points out that they see 'objects afar off, as in the heaven' and 'represent things afar off as near,' it clearly illustrates the House of Salomon's efforts to bring religion (from the heavens) to their people. Likewise, they exclude science, something 'near' on earth, from these religious revelations and make them seem 'afar off.'
This passage foreshadows the Father's comment that the House of Salomon possesses much more knowledge, 'sight far above spectacles and glasses in use,' than they disclose to the population. They feel qualified to label things 'flaws in gems' and take on the huge responsibility of deciding what is worthy of revelation, because these things might 'not otherwise be seen,' or understood by the population. However, this assumption that the people of Bensalem are not capable of grasping knowledge on their own is invalid, because they have never been given the chance to attempt it.
These ending words of the quotation about making 'artificial…light' are justifiable evidence of the House of Salomon constructing miracles to influence their population. However, the statement that they represent all 'manner of reflections, refractions, multiplications' is untrue. The House of Salomon does reflect knowledge a certain way, does refract and distribute it a certain way, and does multiply it a certain way. Yet, this certain way is absolutely not all-encompassing and is only formatted to serve their purposes.

"But ere he came near, the pillar and cross of light brake up…there were found in it a Book and a Letter…The Book contained all the canonical books of the Old and New Testament."
"And it came to pass that the next day about evening we saw within a kenning before us, toward the north, as it were thick clouds, which did put us in some hope of land, knowing how that part of the South Sea was utterly unknown, and might have islands or continents that hitherto were not come to light."
"But then, that they should have knowledge of the languages, books, affairs, of those that lie such a distance from them, it was a thing we could not tell what to make of; for that it seemed to us a condition and propriety of divine powers and beings, to be hidden and unseen to others, and yet to have others open, and as in a light to them."
"Salomon's House; the noblest foundation (as we think) that ever was upon the earth; and the lanthorn of this kingdom. It is dedicated to the study of the Works and Creatures of God."
The following quotation is presented to the narrator by the visiting Father of Salomon when he is describing the House of Salomon's Preparations and Instruments:
"…where we make demonstrations of all lights and radiations and of all colors; and out of things uncolored and transparent we can represent unto you all several colors, not in rainbows, as it is in gems and prisms, but of themselves single…"
"…We represent also all multiplications of light, which we carry to great distance, and make so sharp as to discern small points and lines. Also all colorations of light: all delusions and deceits of the sight, in figures, magnitudes, motions, colors; all demonstrations of shadows…"
"…We find also divers means, yet unknown to you, of producing of light, originally from divers bodies…"
"…We procure means of seeing objects afar off, as in the heaven and remote places; and represent things near as afar off, and things afar off as near; making feigned distances…"
"…We have also helps for the sight far above spectacles and glasses in use; we have also glasses and means to see small and minute bodies, perfectly and distinctly; as the shapes and colors of small flies and worms, grains, and flaws in gems which cannot otherwise be seen, observations in urine and blood not otherwise to be seen…"
"…We make artificial rainbows, halos, and circles about light. We represent also all manner of reflections, refractions, and multiplications of visual beams of objects…" Light

House of Salomon and Feast of Family

In "The New Atlantis," Solamona is described as a 'divine instrument, though a mortal man… esteem him as lawgiver of our nation, large heart, inscrutable for good.
In The Bible, King Solomon asks God for a "discerning heart to govern and the ability to distinguish between right and wrong." God is pleased with this request and in response, bestows this gift of wisdom so "there will never have been anyone like you [Solomon], nor will there ever be. Moreover, I will give you what you have not asked for -- both riches and honour -- so that in your lifetime you will have no equal among kings."
King Solomon was the only person upon which God bestowed this gift of wisdom (a quality which cannot be replicated) , which suggests that King Solamona and the Bensalemites have a different conception of wisdom.
King Solomon was the last ruler of the United Monarchy/ Kingdom of Israel before it collapsed, splitting into North (Israel) and South (Judah)
Is there significance to the biblical version? What does this say about Bensalem following the reign of King Solamona and also the future of the Bensalemites? Are they a united people or is there a division (House of Salomon's control over the multitude…) Solamona vs. Solomon

Solamona's reign was the most prosperous in the island's history. Bensalem was independent, self sufficient, receiving no foreign aid.
Governor claims that unlike the Chinese, Solamona's laws pertaining to the entrance of foreigners have not made the Bensalemites a fearful and ignorant people…is this true?

Contradicts the meaning of Renfusa (significant city in Bensalem): sheep-like
Always attempting to prove the superiority of Bensalem over other nations. Does this expose an ignorance of the outside world?
Continuing after Solamona's reign, the Bensalemites have maintained a fear of mixing of cultures (isolationist policies.) With advancement, their society mixes nature in an effort to make a greater form (plants, animals)
- Mixing nature: what is religion's true place and purpose in their culture if there is such a lack of reverence for nature? Does not conform with Christian beliefs Solamona's Reign (Isolation)
  
  "…the noblest foundation (as we think) that ever was upon the earth; and the lanthorn (light) of this kingdom…dedicated to the study of the works and creatures of God"…"whereby God might have the more glory in the workmanship of them, and men the more fruit in the use of them"
  Bensalemites consistently refer to God as a means for their personal benefit and the further advancement of their nation – this is different from the Christian relationship with God
  Governor: "As I take it to be denominate (named for) of the King of the Hebrews, which is famous with you, and no stranger to us."
  - Wording implies the Bensalemites feel they have a closer relationship with God
    Members of the Society of Salomon create the appearance that the purpose of their activities is under the guidance of God
    Political implications
    - The multitude needs something that the minority controls
      Bacon asserts a specific kind of wisdom - the minority's wisdom to formulate such a facade to maintain order and peace within society The House of Salomon
      God's grace to those of our order – to know thy works of creation and the secrets of them; "to discern between divine miracles, works of nature, works of art and impostures and illusions of all sorts." This "wise" man then claims that this pillar of light, "thy Finger", is in fact a miracle.
      
      The wisdom given to King Solomon was directly related to moral judgment (discerning right from wrong).
      The New Atlantis (Pillar of Light – Miracle): "…in one of the boats, one of the wise men of the Society of Salomon's House…contemplated this pillar and cross" and then prayed to God:
      Wisdom presented in The New Atlantis does not imply discernment of moral dilemmas, rather the knowledge required to distinguish miracles from natural events. Wisdom
      
      In Greek mythology, Eros is the God of love, sexual desire, and fertility
      Mythology vs. Christianity Eros
      
      Putti: plump little naked boys with wings that are often seen in Renaissance, Mannerist, Baroque and Rococo art.
      Typically, depicts an angel or cherub in a religious scene, but he may also come in the form of Cupid.
      A putto's presence symbolizes love, whether Divine or of a more earthly nature. Art History
      
      Eros: The life instinct postulated by Freudian psychology, standing in opposition to Thanatos, the death instinct.
      The Einstein-Freud Correspondence 1931-1932
      The topic of War Freud
      
      Bensalem: Pure? Chaste?
      - The pools represent the Bensalemite's knowledge and love of the physical and sexual
        Biblical connection: "to know" which references intimate relations
        The pools contradict notions of shame and guilt
        
        In the Bible, Adam and Eve are ashamed of their nakedness
        In "The New Atlantis" nudity is not a source of shame
        This practice emphasizes perfection of the body (physical defects being a justified reason to refuse marriage)
        
        Contradicts sacred element of a Christian marriage (bond between two souls) Pools of Adam and Eve
        
        "A most natural, pious, and reverend custom…showing a nation to be compounded of all goodness"
        
        "showing" – implies superficial demonstration, a mask or façade
        Tirsan's Blessing: "Thy Father say it, the man by whom thou hast breath of life speak the word; the blessing of the everlasting Father, the Prince of Peace, and the Holy Dove be upon thee and make the days for thy pilgrimage good and many."
        
        Depending on your interpretation, this reference could indicate either an emphasis on the Tirsan as life-giver and father (emphasizing science and nature) or a reference to God as the breath of life (emphasizing religion).
        Religion is in no way the foundation of this event; while there are references to God and other important figures such as Abraham, Adam and Noah in prayers or hymns, religion plays a superficial role.
        This Feast emphasizes the relationship between the government and people of Bensalem.
        Also celebrates nature, reproduction, and fertility. The Feast of the Family
        
        What is the purpose of government?
        
        To instill morality vs. questions of security
        Government and marriage:
        
        Bacon: raises issues concerning familial and erotic life
        What is the shape of the future family as a result of what is emphasized in Bensalem (the continuation of scientific progress)?
        What would happen in our society if the government decided to no longer certify (recognize) marriage? Influences
        
        The City of the Sun

2008-04-21T10:21:00.001-07:00

Nazism developed several theories concerning races. They claimed to scientifically measure a strict hierarchy among "human races"; at the top was the "Nordic race", then lesser races. At the bottom of this hierarchy were "parasitic" races, or "Untermenschen" ("sub-humans"), which were perceived to be dangerous to society. Lowest of all in the Nazi racial policy were Africans, Gypsies and Jews. The latters were considered to be "Lebensunwertes Leben" ("Life unworthy of life") and were subjected as second-class citizens, expelled from Nazi Germany before being interned in concentration camps, then exterminated during the Holocaust (see Raul Hilberg's description of the various phases of the Holocaust). R. Walther Darré, Reich Minister of Food and Agriculture from 1933 to 1942, popularized the expression "Blut und Boden" ("Blood and Soil"), one of the many terms of the Nazi glossary ideologically used to enforce popular racism in the German population.

Propaganda and implementation of racial theories

2008-04-20T09:58:00.001-07:00

Jackson is a city in Butts County, Georgia, United States. The population was 3,934 at the 2000 census. The city is the county seat of Butts County. The center of population of Georgia is located in Jackson.[1].

Demographics
Jackson is the home of WJGA-FM 92.1, broadcaster of Jackson High School Red Devil sports.

2008-04-19T09:42:00.001-07:00

Roman Ribchester
A report on Roman remains at Ribchester was published in Roman Britain in 1914 (Haverfield, 1915):
"In the spring of 1913 a small school-building was pulled down at Ribchester, and the Manchester Classical Association was able to resume its examination of the Principia (praetorium) of the Roman fort, above a part of which this building had stood. The work was carried out by Prof. W. B. Anderson, of Manchester University, and Mr. D. Atkinson, Research Fellow of Reading College, and, though limited in extent, was very successful.
"The first discovery of the Principia is due to Miss Greenall, who about 1905 was building a house close to the school and took care that certain remains found by her builders should be duly noted: excavations in 1906-7, however, left the size and extent of these remains somewhat uncertain and resulted in what we now know to be an incorrect plan. The work done last spring (1913) makes it plain (see illustration) that the Principia fronted — in normal fashion — the main street of the fort (gravel laid on cobbles) running from the north to the south gate. But, abnormally, the frontage was formed by a verandah or colonnade: the only parallel which I can quote is from Caersws, where excavations in 1909 revealed a similar verandah in front of the Principia. Next to the verandah stood the usual Outer Court with a colonnade round it and two wells in it (one is the usual provision): the colonnade seemed to have been twice rebuilt. Beyond that are fainter traces of the Inner Court which, however, lies mostly underneath a churchyard: the only fairly clear feature is a room (A on plan) which seems to have stood on the right side of the Inner Court, as at Chesters and Ambleside. Behind this, probably, stood the usual five office rooms. If we carry the Principia about twenty feet further back, which would be a full allowance for these rooms with their walling, the end of the whole structure will line with the ends of the granaries found some years ago. This, or something very like it, is what we should naturally expect. We then obtain a structure measuring 81 × 112 feet, the latter dimension including a verandah 8 feet wide. This again seems a reasonable result. Ribchester was a large fort, about 6 acres, garrisoned by cavalry; in a similar fort at Chesters, on Hadrian's Wall, the Principia measured 85 × 125 feet: in the 'North Camp' at Camelon, another fort of much the same size (nearly 6 acres), they measured 92 × 120 feet."
The most famous artifact discoverd in Ribchester, and dating from the Roman period, is the elaborate cavalry helmet found in Church Street in the 1700's and now held in the British Museum as the gift of Charles Towneley.

Post-Roman Ribchester
The Ribchester stretch of the River Ribble.
A window of Ribchester Primary School.
St. Wilfrid's Parish Church.
St. Wilfrids' tower.
Homes on the western side of Church Street.
The White Bull, patronised by the members of Time Team during their 1993 visit to the village.
Ribchester Field Day parade moves down Water Street.
The Palm Sunday parade moving from outside the White Bull Pub to Saint Wilfrid's Church.

2008-04-18T08:46:00.001-07:00

Susan Hendricks is an anchor with CNN and CNN Headline News based in CNN's world headquarters in Atlanta. Hendricks also appears occasionally on CNN Pipeline, CNN.com's on-demand broadband news service.
Hendricks decided to pursue a career in television journalism after hearing Walter Cronkite speak in one of her journalism courses at Arizona State University. She started her news career in Los Angeles at Comcast cable then headed to KESQ in Palm Springs where she was a field reporter. It was at KESQ that Susan was able to meet the source of her inspiration, and interviewed Walter Cronkite for a piece on KESQ.
After two years in the field she joined the NBC affiliate KMIR where she anchored a two-hour morning show.
After a few years with KMIR, Susan headed to Atlanta and joined CNN Headline News where she anchored the weekend and primetime news shows as well. She covered breaking stories. Susan also acted as an entertainment correspondent. While at CNN, Susan also anchored a CNN interactive news site on CNN.com.
Susan came to Los Angeles from Atlanta to help launch DIRECTV Hendricks returned to Headline News in September 2005.
Hendricks started her journalism career at Comcast Cable in Los Angeles.
Hendricks earned a bachelor's degree in mass communications from Arizona State University.
More:

2008-04-17T09:18:00.001-07:00

Biography
Sugiyama is also known as a historical revisionist on Japanese history. Especially on Nanking Massacre and Comfort Women problem, Sugiyama completely denies guilt of Japanese Empire. He is one of the approval person of "The Facts" advertisement on Washington Post. Some Dragon Quest fans out of Japan said they have been disappointed by his political stance.

As a Japanese nationalist

Dragon Quest (1986)
Dragon Quest II: Akuryo no Kamigami (1987)
Dragon Quest III: Soshite Densetsu he (1988)
JESUS: Kyoufu no Bio Monster (1988)
Dragon Quest IV: Michibikareshi Monotachi (1990)
Akagawa Jirouno Yuurei Ressha (1991)(with Yasuhiro Taguchi)
E.V.O.: Search for Eden (1992)
Hanjyuku Hero: Aah Sekai yo Hanjuku Nare (1992)
Divertimento ~ Hanjuku Hero (1993)
Dragon Quest V: Tenku no Hanayome (1992)
Syvalion (1992)
Tetris 2 (1993)
Torneko no Daibouken: Fushigi no Dungeon (1993)
Itadaki Street 2: Neon Sign ha Bara Iro ni (1994)
The Monopoly Game 2(JP) (1995)
Dragon Quest VI: Maboroshi no Daichi (1995)
Dragon Quest Monsters (1998)
Torneko no Daibouken 2 (1999)
Dragon Quest Monsters 1 & 2 (2000)
Dragon Quest VII: Eden no Senshitachi (2000)
Torneko no Daibouken 3: The Last Hope (2000)
Dragon Quest Monsters 2 (2001)
Dragon Quest Monsters: Slime Morimori (2003)
Dragon Quest Monsters: Caravan Hearts (2003)
Itadaki Street Special (2004)
Dragon Quest VIII: Sora to Umi to Daichi to Norowareshi Himegimi (2004) (also conductor)
Dragon Quest Swords: The Masked Queen and the Tower of Mirrors (2006)
Dragon Quest IX [1] Other works
Sugiyama is a self-admitted "game freak," who still counts game collecting among his hobbies. In fact, his first contact with Enix was a fan letter he wrote them regarding a PC shogi game in the early '80s. After Enix's staff overcame the shock of receiving a handwritten postcard from a celebrity of Sugiyama's stature, they were so impressed by his depth of knowledge and appreciation of games that they decided to ask Sugiyama to write the music for Dragon Quest.

2008-04-16T09:29:00.001-07:00

WOBC can refer to:
WOBC-FM, an FM radio station licensed to Oberlin, Ohio
WOBC-CA, a low-power simulcastor of WXSP-CA licensed to Battle Creek, Michigan

2008-04-15T09:32:00.001-07:00

The NATO phonetic alphabet, more formally the international radiotelephony spelling alphabet, is the most widely used spelling alphabet. Though often called "phonetic alphabets", spelling alphabets have no connection to phonetic transcription systems like the International Phonetic Alphabet. Instead, the NATO alphabet assigns code words to the letters of the English alphabet acrophonically so that critical combinations of letters (and numbers) can be pronounced and understood by those who transmit and receive voice messages by radio or telephone regardless of their native language, especially when the safety of navigation or persons is essential. The paramount reason is to ensure intelligibility of voice signals over radio links. It is used by many national and international organizations, including the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). It is a subset of the much older International Code of Signals (INTERCO), which originally included visual signals by flags or flashing light, sound signals by whistle, siren, foghorn, or bell, as well as one, two, or three letter codes for many phrases. However, ATP-1 is marked NATO Confidential (or the lower NATO Restricted) so it is not publicly available. Nevertheless, a NATO unclassified version of the document is provided to foreign, even hostile, militaries, even though they are not allowed to make it publicly available.

Alphabet and pronunciation
The first internationally recognized alphabet was adopted by the ITU in 1927. The experience gained with that alphabet resulted in several changes being made in 1932 by the ITU. The resulting alphabet was adopted by the International Commission for Air Navigation, the predecessor of the ICAO, and was used in civil aviation until World War II. It continued to be used by the IMO until 1965:
Amsterdam Baltimore Casablanca Denmark Edison Florida Gallipoli Havana Italia Jerusalem Kilogramme Liverpool Madagascar New_York Oslo Paris Quebec Roma Santiago Tripoli Upsala Valencia Washington Xanthippe Yokohama Zurich
During World War II (specifically in 1941), the requirements of joint Allied operations led to the development of the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet:
Able Baker Charlie Dog Easy Fox George How Item Jig King Love Mike Nan Oboe Peter Queen Roger Sugar Tare Uncle Victor William X-ray Yoke Zebra
Several RAF phonetic alphabets were also used. After the war, with many aircraft and ground personnel drawn from the allied armed forces, "Able Baker" continued to be used in civil aviation. But many sounds were unique to English, so an alternative "Ana Brazil" alphabet was used in Latin America. But the International Air Transport Association (IATA), recognizing the need for a single universal alphabet, presented a draft alphabet to the ICAO in 1947 which had sounds common to English, French, and Spanish. After further study and modification by each approving body, the revised alphabet was implemented November 1, 1951:
Alfa Bravo Coca Delta Echo Foxtrot Golf Hotel India Juliett Kilo Lima Metro Nectar Oscar Papa Quebec Romeo Sierra Tango Union Victor Whisky Extra Yankee Zulu
Immediately, problems were found with this list—some users felt they were so severe that they reverted to the old "Able Baker" alphabet. To identify the deficiencies of the new alphabet, testing was conducted among speakers from 31 nations, principally by the governments of the United Kingdom and the United States. Confusion among words like Delta, Nectar, Victor, and Extra, or omission of other words under poor receiving conditions were the main problems. After much study, only five words representing the letters C, M, N, U, and X were replaced. The final version given in the table above was implemented by the ICAO on March 1, 1956, Because the ITU governs all international radio communications, it was also adopted by all radio operators, whether military, civilian, or amateur (ARRL). It was finally adopted by the IMO in 1965. In 1947 the ITU adopted the compound number words (Nadazero Unaone, etc.), later adopted by the IMO in 1965.

History
The alphabet is used to spell out parts of a message or call sign that are critical or otherwise hard to recognize during voice communication. For instance the message "proceed to map grid DH98" could be transmitted as "proceed to map grid Delta-Hotel-Niner-Eight" and a C-130 Hercules plane directly ahead might be described as a "Charlie One Three Zero in your twelve o'clock". Several letter codes and abbreviations using the phonetic alphabet have become well-known, such as Bravo Zulu (letter code BZ) for "well done", Checkpoint Charlie (Checkpoint C) in Berlin, and Zulu for Greenwich Mean Time or Coordinated Universal Time. In SWAT units, Tango is used for terrorists, Sierra for a Sniper etc.
In addition to the traditional military usage, civilian industry uses the alphabet to combat similar problems in the transmission of messages over telephone systems. For example, it is often used in the retail industry where customer or site details are spoken over the telephone (in order to authorize a credit agreement or confirming stock codes), although adhoc coding is often used in that instance. It has found heavy usage in the information technology industry to accurately and quickly communicate serial/reference codes (which can be and are frequently extremely long) or other specialised information by voice.
Most of the words are recognizable by native English speakers because English must be used upon request for communication between an aircraft and a control tower whenever two nations are involved, regardless of their native languages. English is not required domestically, thus if both parties to a radio conversation are from the same country, then another phonetic alphabet of that nation's choice may be used.
In most versions of the alphabet, the non-English spellings Alfa and Juliett are found. Alfa is spelled with an f as it is in most European languages. The English and French spelling alpha would not be properly pronounced by speakers of other languages—native speakers of those languages may pronounce ph as if it were a p, ignoring the h. Juliett is spelled with a tt for the benefit of native French speakers because they will treat a single t as silent—the English word Juliet is Juliette in French, but the ICAO did not adopt the final e because it might be misunderstood by native Spanish speakers as indicative of a final syllable teh. In English versions of the alphabet, like that from ANSI, one or both may revert to their standard English spelling.

Additions in German, Danish and Norwegian
The letter "Delta" is replaced by "Dixie" at airports that have a majority of Delta Air Lines flights, such as Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport.
"Foxtrot" is commonly abbreviated to "Fox" at North American airports.
For Japanese speakers, "Bravo" is difficult to pronounce so in Japan, "Baker" is frequently used instead.
Amateur radio and Citizens' band radio operators will occasionally use "Kilowatt" in lieu of simply "Kilo", and "Radio" instead of Romeo.
In the Philippines, the word "Hawk" is sometimes used for the letter H, rather than "Hotel".
In Indonesia, the word "Lima" for letter L is seldom used since the word "lima" means number five (5) in Indonesian. Instead, "London" is most often used for letter L.
In Brazil, the word "Xingu" replaces X-ray for the letter X. Xingu is a river of the Amazon River system.
Many unofficial phonetic alphabets are in use that are not based on a standard, but are based on words the transmitter can easily remember. Often, such ad-hoc phonetic alphabets are based on (mostly) men's names, such as Alan Bobby Charlie David Edward Frederick George Howard Isaac James Kevin Larry Michael Nicholas Oscar Peter Quincy Robert Stephen Trevor Ulysses Vincent William Xavier Yaakov Zebedee, or on a mixture of names and other easily recognizable (and locally understandable) proper nouns, such as U.S. states, local cities and towns, etc. One documented example of this is the LAPD phonetic alphabet.

Variants
In addition to the alphabets referred to above, numerous other phonetic alphabets have been used in the past.

World War I western front trench slang: Ack Beer Charlie Don Edward Freddie Gee Harry Ink Johnnie King London Emma Nuts Oranges Pip Queen Robert Esses Toc Uncle Vic William X-ray Yorker Zebra This appears to be the origin of the RAF slang phrases such as ack emma for morning, pip emma for afternoon and ack-ack for anti-aircraft. Ack Emma was also used for 'Air Mechanic' in the Royal Flying Corps (1914-18). An oft-quoted origin regarding the term "Ack Ack" is that it comes from the German 'acht-acht' (for "88",) but since the phrase originated in WWI when the Germans employed mainly 75mm anti-aircraft guns (as opposed to the 88 mm guns of WWII,) it would seem to be nothing more than an attractive myth.
British Royal Navy during World War I: Apples Butter Charlie Duff Edward Freddy George Harry Ink Johnnie King London Monkey Nuts Orange Pudding Queenie Robert Sugar Tommy Uncle Vinegar Willie Xerxes Yellow Zebra Older phonetic alphabets
This section has been tagged since May 2007.
In European history, Checkpoint Charlie became an icon of the Cold War. It was a crossing point between East and West Berlin while the city was divided by the Berlin Wall (1961–1989). There were Checkpoints Alpha and Bravo in other parts of Germany, named after the phonetic alphabet for "A", "B", and "C" respectively.
During the Vietnam War, Viet Cong guerrillas and the group itself were referred to as VC, or Victor Charlie; the name "Charlie" has thus become synonymous with this force.
The phonetic alphabet is frequently used in popular culture to evoke a military environment or situation. For example, in the movie Meet the Parents, Robert de Niro plays a former CIA operative who repeatedly utters phrases using the phonetic alphabet.
Other notable examples of usage include the UK television series Juliet Bravo which wasn't the character's name but her callsign, and Robert Ludlum's novel The Bourne Identity which repeatedly uses the system - the phrase Cain is for Charlie and Delta is for Cain is repeated, always italicised, to symbolise the messages relayed to the main character during the Vietnam War.
Slang uses include euphemisms for swear words, such as Whiskey Tango Foxtrot ("What The Fuck?").
Similarly, the Bloodhound Gang's song 'Foxtrot Uniform Charlie Kilo' spells out the word fuck in the phonetic alphabet.

Recordings

2008-04-14T08:19:00.001-07:00

U.S. Cellular Field a.k.a. "The Cell" or (formerly New Comiskey Park) is a baseball stadium in Chicago, Illinois. It is the home of the Chicago White Sox of the American League. The park opened for the 1991 season, after the White Sox had spent 81 years at Comiskey Park. The new park, completed at a cost of $167 million, also opened with the Comiskey Park name, but became U.S. Cellular Field in 2003 after U.S. Cellular bought the naming rights at $68 million over 20 years. It hosted the MLB All-Star Game that same year. A few sportscasters and fans, however, continue to use the former name, (new) Comiskey Park. Prior to the demolition of the Old Comiskey Park, Comiskey was the oldest in-use ballpark in Major League Baseball, a title now held by Fenway Park in Boston.
The stadium is situated at 35th Street and Shields Avenue in Chicago's Armour Square neighborhood ajacent to the Bridgeport neighborhood. It was built in the parking lot of old Comiskey Park, which was torn down and became a parking lot for the current park.
The stadium was the first new sports venue built in Chicago since The United Center opened in 1995. It was also the first baseball-only park since Royals Stadium (now Kauffman Stadium) opened in 1973, and the last built before the recent wave of new "retro-classic" stadiums. However, a few design features from the old park were retained. Most notable among them is the "exploding scoreboard," which is a replica of the one installed by Bill Veeck at the old park in 1960. At the beginning of all games, after a White Sox player hits a home run, and after a White Sox victory, the scoreboard lights up in color and fireworks explode in the sky. The entrance has several arched windows. The Sox Shower, located in left-center field, is a place where fans can cool off during hot gamedays.
As originally built, the park was criticized by many fans. To avoid overhang problems that were present in many stadiums built in the modern era, the upper deck was set back over the lower deck. However, this created one of the highest upper decks in baseball. The first row of seats in the upper deck at the new stadium is farther from the field than the highest row of seats in the upper deck at the old stadium. The new park's roof was much smaller than the old park's roof, and didn't completely cover the upper deck. Mike Veeck, son of the former White Sox' owner, once said, "It had everything but a soul."
In response to fan complaints, the stadium has undergone numerous renovations since its opening in order to retrofit the facility to current architectural trends. These new features have included building a multi-tiered concourse beyond center field, adjusting the fences to make the outfield less symmetrical and, most significantly, the removal of 6,000 seats at the top of the upper deck.
The uppermost story of the park now has a white and black screen behind the top row of seats and is topped by a flat canopy roof supported by poles that obstruct the view of a few seats. To give the park a "retro" feel the roof has black steel truss supports. The original blue seats were also replaced by forest green seats. The new green and black color scheme, upper level screen set back from the outer wall and canopy roof resembles the old Comiskey Park as well as other classic baseball stadiums. The White Sox have also added murals to the interior concourses, a prominent feature of the old stadium.
The stadium houses 84 luxury suites located on two levels, as well as thousands of "club seats" on 300-level mezzanine between the lower deck and upper deck. The club seats receive in-seat wait-staff and benefit from an enclosed concourse with multiple television viewing areas and bar-style concessions.

Renovations

Three rows of seats were added along the field between the dugouts and the foul poles.
Bullpens were moved and replaced with additional bleachers.
Distances to the outfield wall were changed, most noticeably down the foul lines, where the bullpens and the Bullpen Sports Bar are now located.
Batter's eye in center field was redesigned.
Restaurant was added in the outfield. Phase I (2001 season)

Old backstop with netted roof was replaced with a new "roofless" backstop which allows foul balls to drop into seats.
Improvements were made to the main and club level concourses.
Scoreboard and video boards were upgraded. Phase II (2002 season)

New center field video board and LED "ribbon" boards were added.
Outfield/Upper Deck Concourse upgrades were made.
Fan Deck in center field was added.
Ballpark was painted and stained.
A life size bronze statue of Charles Comiskey.
Phase III renovations cost approximately $20 million. Phase III (2003 season)

Upper Deck Seating Area - Eight rows and 6,600 seats were removed from the top of ballpark's upper deck.
A flat roof, elevated 20 feet above the seating area, has replaced the old roof, covering all but eight rows of seating.
Upper Deck Concourse was partially enclosed from the weather by a translucent wall.
Fan Deck in center field upgraded to feature tiered seating and standing room.
Lower Terrace balcony added to provide an additional party area and outdoor seating.
A life sized bronze statue of Minnie Minoso.
Phase IV renovations cost approximately $28 million. Phase IV (2004 season)

314-seat "Scout" seating area directly behind home plate added.
FUNdamentals, an area for kids, was added above the left field concourse.
Green seats replaced the old blue seats in the Club level, bleachers and some scattered areas around home plate.
A life size bronze statue of Carlton Fisk. Phase VI (2006 season)

Green seats replaced the old blue seats in the Lower Deck from the dugouts and the entire outfield seating area (including the left-center field bleachers which were previously renovated).
A new premium seating/restaurant area located in the former press box behind home plate in the stadium's "club level".
A new press box located on the first base side of the upper level of club level seating.
A new custom T-shirt shop
The beginning of a brick plaza in front of the stadium
A life size bronze statue of Billy Pierce placed on the center field concourse. Phase VII (2007 season)

Although the most of the blue seats have been replaced with green seats, two blue seats remain in the outfield. One is in the left field section, while the other is in right-center. The seats are the very seats where Paul Konerko's grand-slam and Scott Podsednik's walk-off home run from the 2005 World Series landed.
Notoriously located near the former sites of the Robert Taylor Homes and Stateway Gardens housing projects, at one time one of the most dangerous neighbourhoods in the United States. Notes

U.S. Cellular Arena - an indoor sports arena in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
U.S. Cellular Center - an indoor multipurpose arena in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
U.S. Cellular Coliseum - an indoor sports arena in Bloomington, Illinois.

2008-04-13T08:31:00.001-07:00

The Third Crusade (1189–1192), also known as the Kings' Crusade, was an attempt by European leaders to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin.
After the failure of the Second Crusade, the Zengid dynasty controlled a unified Syria and engaged in a conflict with the Fatimid rulers of Egypt, which ultimately resulted in the unification of Egyptian and Syrian forces under the command of Saladin, who employed them to reduce the Christian states and to recapture Jerusalem in 1187. Spurred by religious zeal, Richard I of England and Philip II of France ended their conflict with each other to lead a new Crusade. The elderly Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa responded to the call to arms, and lead a massive army across Anatolia, but died from drowning before reaching the Holy Land. His discouraged troops left to go home.
After some military successes, the Christian powers argued over the spoils of war; frustrated with Richard, Frederick's successor Leopold V of Austria and Philip left the Holy Land in August 1191. On September 2, 1192, Richard and Saladin finalized a treaty by which Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control, but which also allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims to visit the city. Richard departed the Holy Land on October 9. The failure of the Third Crusade would lead to the call for a Fourth Crusade six years later.

Background
After the failure of the Second Crusade, Nur ad-Din had control of Damascus and a unified Syria.
Eager to expand his power, Nur ad-Din set his sights on the Fatimid dynasty of Egypt. In 1163, Nur ad-Din's most trusted general, Shirkuh set out on a military expedition to the Nile. Accompanying the general was his young nephew, Saladin.
With Shirkuh's troops camped outside of Cairo, Egypt's sultan, Shawar called on King Amalric I of Jerusalem for assistance. In response, Amalric sent an army into Egypt and attacked Shirkuh's troops at Bilbeis in 1164.
In an attempt to divert Crusader attention from Egypt, Nur ad-Din attacked Antioch, resulting in a massacre of Christian soldiers and the capture of several Crusader leaders, including Raynald of Châtillon, Prince of Antioch. Nur ad-Din sent the scalps of the Christian defenders to Egypt for Shirkuh to proudly display at Bilbeis for Amalric's soldiers to see. This action prompted both Amalric and Shirkuh to lead their armies out of Egypt.
In 1167, Nur ad-Din once again sent Shirkuh to conquer the Fatimids in Egypt. Shawar also opted to once again call upon Amalric for the defence of his territory. The combined Egyptian-Christian forces pursued Shirkuh until he retreated to Alexandria.
Amalric then breached his alliance with Shawar by turning his forces on Egypt and besieging the city of Bilbeis. Shawar pleaded with his former enemy, Nur ad-Din to save him from Amalric's treachery. Lacking the resources to maintain a prolonged siege of Cairo against the combined forces of Nur ad-Din and Shawar, Amalric retreated. This new alliance gave Nur ad-Din rule over virtually all of Syria and Egypt.

Muslim unification
Shawar was executed for his treacherous alliances with the Christian forces, and Shirkuh succeeded him as vizier of Egypt. In 1169, Shirkuh died unexpectedly after only weeks of rule. Shirkuh's successor was his nephew, Salah ad-Din Yusuf, commonly known as Saladin. Nur ad-Din died in 1174, leaving the new empire to his 11-year old son, As-Salih. It was decided that the only man competent enough to uphold the jihad against the Crusaders was Saladin, who became sultan of both Egypt and Syria, and the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty.
Amalric also died in 1174, leaving Jerusalem to his 13-year old son, Baldwin IV. Although Baldwin suffered from leprosy, he was an effective and active military commander, defeating Saladin at the battle of Montgisard in 1177, with support from Raynald of Châtillon, who had been released from prison in 1176. Later, he forged an agreement with Saladin to allow free trade between Muslim and Christian territories.
Raynald also raided caravans throughout the region. He expanded his piracy to the Red Sea by sending galleys not only to raid ships, but to assault the city of Mecca itself. These acts enraged the Muslim world, giving Raynald a reputation as the most hated man in the Middle East.
Baldwin IV died in 1185 and the kingdom was left to his nephew Baldwin V, whom he had crowned as co-king in 1183. Raymond III of Tripoli again served as regent. The following year, Baldwin V died before his ninth birthday, and his mother Princess Sybilla, sister of Baldwin IV, crowned herself queen and her husband, Guy of Lusignan, king.
It was at this time that Reynald, once again, raided a rich caravan and had its travelers thrown in his prison. Saladin demanded that the prisoners and their cargo be released. The newly crowned King Guy appealed to Reynald to give in to Saladin's demands, but Reynald refused to follow the king's orders.

Saladin's conquests
Full article: Battle of Hattin; Siege of Jerusalem
It was this final act of outrage by Raynald which gave Saladin the opportunity he needed to take the offensive against the kingdom. He laid siege to the city of Tiberias in 1187. Raymond advised patience, but King Guy, acting on advice from Raynald, marched his army to the Horns of Hattin outside of Tiberias.
The Crusader army, thirsty and demoralized, was destroyed in the ensuing battle. King Guy and Raynald were brought to Saladin's tent, where Guy was offered a goblet of water. Guy took a drink but was forbidden to pass the goblet to Raynald, because the Muslim rule of hospitality states that one who receives food or drink is under the protection of the host. Saladin would not be forced to protect the treacherous Raynald by allowing him to drink. Raynald, who had not had a drop of water in days, grabbed the goblet out of Guy's hands. Upon seeing Raynald's disrespect for Muslim custom, Saladin beheaded Raynald for past betrayals. Saladin honored tradition with King Guy; Guy was sent to Damascus and eventually ransomed to his people, one of the few captive crusaders to avoid execution.
By the end of the year, Saladin had taken Acre and Jerusalem. Pope Urban III is said to have collapsed and later died upon hearing the news. However, at the time of his death, the news of the fall of Jerusalem could not yet have reached him, although he knew of the battle of Hattin and the fall of Acre.

Fall of the Latin Kingdom
The new pope, Gregory VIII proclaimed that the capture of Jerusalem was punishment for the sins of Christians across Europe. The cry went up for a new crusade to the Holy Land. Henry II of England and Philip II of France ended their war with each other, and both imposed a "Saladin tithe" on their citizens to finance the venture. In Britain, Baldwin of Exeter, the archbishop of Canterbury, made a tour through Wales, convincing 3,000 men-at-arms to take up the cross, recorded in the Itinerary of Giraldus Cambrensis.

Preparations
The elderly Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa responded to the call immediately. He took up the Cross at Mainz Cathedral on March 27, 1188 and was the first to set out for the Holy Land in May of 1189 with an army of over 15,000 men of which 3,000 were knights. The army was so huge that it could not be transported across the Mediterranean Sea, but instead had to cross Asia Minor by foot.
The Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelus made a secret alliance with Saladin to impede Frederick's progress in exchange for his empire's safety. On May 18, 1190, the German army captured Iconium, the capital of the Sultanate of Rüm. However, on June 10, 1190, Frederick was thrown from his horse in the crossing of the Saleph River and drowned. After this, much of his army returned to Germany. His son Frederick of Swabia led the rest to Antioch. There, the emperor's body was boiled to remove the flesh, which was interred in the Church of St. Peter; his bones were put in a bag to continue the crusade. In Antioch, however, the German army was further reduced by fever. Young Frederick had to ask the assistance of his kinsman Conrad of Montferrat to lead him safely to Acre, by way of Tyre, where his father's bones were buried.

Barbarossa's crusade
Henry II of England died on July 6, 1189 following a defeat by his son Richard I (Lionheart) and Philip II. Richard inherited the crown and immediately began raising funds for the crusade. In July 1190, Richard and Philip set out jointly with 10,000 men each from Marseille, France for Sicily.
William II of Sicily had died the previous year, and was replaced by Tancred, who placed Joan of England — William's wife and Richard's sister — in prison. Richard captured the capital city of Messina on October 4, 1190 and Joan was released. Richard and Philip fell out over the issue of Richard's marriage, as Richard had decided to marry Berengaria of Navarre, breaking off his long-standing betrothal to Philip's half-sister Alys. Philip left Sicily directly for the Middle East on March 30, 1191, and arrived in Tyre in mid-May. He joined the siege of Acre on May 20. Richard did not set off from Sicily until April 10.
Shortly after setting sail from Sicily, Richard's armada was struck by a violent storm. Several ships ran aground, including one holding Joan, his new fiancée Berengaria, and a large amount of treasure that had been amassed for the crusade. It was soon discovered that Isaac Dukas Comnenus of Cyprus had seized the treasure. The young women were unharmed. Richard entered Limassol on May 6, and met with Isaac, who agreed to return Richard's belongings and send 500 of his soldiers to the Holy Land. Once back at his fortress of Famagusta, Isaac broke his oath of hospitality and began issuing orders for Richard to leave the island. Isaac's arrogance prompted Richard to conquer the island within days.

Richard and Philip's departure
Full article: Siege of Acre
King Guy was released from prison by Saladin in 1189. He attempted to take command of the Christian forces at Tyre, but Conrad of Montferrat held power there after his successful defence of the city from Muslim attacks. Guy turned his attention to the wealthy port of Acre. He amassed an army to besiege the city and received aid from Philip's newly-arrived French army. However, it was still not enough to counter Saladin's force, which besieged the besiegers. In summer 1190, in one of the numerous outbreaks of disease in the camp, Queen Sibylla and her young daughters died. Guy, although only king by right of marriage, endeavoured to retain his crown, although the rightful heir was Sibylla's half-sister Isabella. After a hastily arranged divorce from Humphrey IV of Toron, Isabella was married to Conrad of Montferrat, who claimed the kingship in her name.
During the winter of 1190-91, there were further outbreaks of dysentery and fever, which claimed the lives of Frederick of Swabia, Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem, and Theobald V of Blois. When the sailing season began again in spring 1191, Leopold V of Austria arrived and took command of what remained of the imperial forces. Philip of France arrived with his troops from Sicily in May.
Richard arrived at Acre on June 8, 1191 and immediately began supervising the construction of siege weapons to assault the city. The city was captured on July 12.
Richard, Philip, and Leopold quarrelled over the spoils of their victory. Richard cast down the German standard from the city, slighting Leopold. Also, in the struggle for the kingship of Jerusalem, Richard supported Guy, while Philip and Leopold supported Conrad, who was related to them both. It was decided that Guy would continue to rule, but that Conrad would receive the crown upon his death.
Frustrated with Richard (and in Philip's case, in poor health), Philip and Leopold took their armies and left the Holy Land in August.
When it became apparent that Saladin was not willing to pay the terms of the treaty at Acre, Richard had more than 3,000 Muslim prisoners executed on August 20 outside of Acre in full view of Saladin's camp.

Siege of Acre
Full article: Battle of Arsuf
After the capture of Acre, Richard decided to march to the city of Jaffa, where he could launch an attack on Jerusalem but on September 7, 1191, at Arsuf, 30 miles north of Jaffa, Saladin attacked Richard's army.
Saladin attempted to lure Richard's forces out to be easily picked off, but Richard maintained his formation until the Hospitallers rushed in to take Saladin's right flank, while the Templars took the left. Richard then won the battle.

Battle of Arsuf
Following his victory, Richard took Jaffa and established his new headquarters there. He offered to begin negotiations with Saladin, who sent his brother, Al-Adil to meet with Richard. Negotiations (which had included an attempt to marry Richard's sister Joan to Al-Adil) failed, and Richard marched to Ascalon.
Richard called on Conrad to join him on campaign, but he refused, citing Richard's alliance with King Guy. He too had been negotiating with Saladin, as a defence against any attempt by Richard to wrest Tyre from him for Guy. However, in April, Richard was forced to accept Conrad as king of Jerusalem after an election by the nobles of the kingdom. Guy had received no votes at all, but Richard sold him Cyprus as compensation. Before he could be crowned, Conrad was stabbed to death by two Hashshashin in the streets of Tyre. Eight days later, Richard's nephew Henry II of Champagne married Queen Isabella, who was pregnant with Conrad's child. It was strongly suspected that the king's killers had acted on instructions from Richard.
In July 1192, Saladin suddenly attacked and captured Jaffa with thousands of men, but the city was re-captured by Richard and a much smaller force of 55 men on July 31. A final battle was fought on August 5 in which Richard once again emerged triumphant.
On September 2, 1192, Richard and Saladin finalized a treaty by which Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control, but which also allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims to visit the city. Richard departed the Holy Land on October 9.

2008-04-12T10:03:00.001-07:00

The Victorian era of the United Kingdom marked the height of the British Industrial Revolution and the apex of the British Empire. Although commonly used to refer to the period of Queen Victoria's rule between 1837 and 1901, scholars debate whether the Victorian period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians—actually begins with the passage of the Reform Act 1832. The era was preceded by the Regency era and succeeded by the Edwardian period.

Introduction
This inescapable sense of newness resulted in a deep interest in the relationship between modernity and cultural continuities. Gothic Revival architecture became increasingly significant in the period, leading to the Battle of the Styles between Gothic and Classical ideals. Charles Barry's architecture for the new Palace of Westminster, which had been badly damaged in an 1834 fire, built on the medieval style of Westminster Hall, the surviving part of the building. It constructed a narrative of cultural continuity, set in opposition to the violent disjunctions of Revolutionary France, a comparison common to the period, as expressed in Thomas Carlyle's The French Revolution: A History and Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities. Gothic was also supported by the critic John Ruskin, who argued that it epitomised communal and inclusive social values, as opposed to Classicism, which he considered to epitomise mechanical standardisation.
The middle of the century saw The Great Exhibition of 1851, the first World's Fair and showcased the greatest innovations of the century. At its centre was The Crystal Palace, an enormous, modular glass and iron structure - the first of its kind. It was condemned by Ruskin as the very model of mechanical dehumanisation in design, but later came to be presented as the prototype of Modern architecture. The emergence of photography, which was showcased at the Great Exhibition, resulted in significant changes in Victorian art. John Everett Millais was influenced by photography (notably in his portrait of Ruskin) as were other Pre-Raphaelite artists. It later became associated with the Impressionistic and Social Realist techniques that would dominate the later years of the period in the work of artists such as Walter Sickert and Frank Holl.

Culture
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, Britain had a very rigid social structure consisting of three distinct classes: the Church and aristocracy, the middle class, and the working poorer class.
The top class was known as the aristocracy. It included the Church and nobility and had great power and wealth. This class consisted of about two percent of the population, who were born into nobility and who owned the majority of the land. It included the royal family, lords spiritual and temporal, the clergy, great officers of state, and those above the degree of baronet. These people were privileged and avoided taxes.
The middle class consisted of the bourgeoisie - the middle working class. It was made up of factory owners, bankers, shopkeepers, merchants, lawyers, engineers, businessmen, traders, and other professionals. These people could be sometimes extremely rich, but in normal circumstances they were not privileged, and they especially resented this. There was a very large gap between the middle class and the lower class.
The British lower class was divided into two sections: "the working class" (labourers), and "the poor" (those who were not working, or not working regularly, and were receiving public charity). The lower class contained men, women, and children performing many types of labour, including factory work, seamstressing, chimney sweeping, mining, and other jobs. Both the poorer class and the middle class had to endure a large burden of tax. This third class consisted of about eighty-five percent of the population.
Industrialisation changed the class structure dramatically in the late 18th century. Hostility was created between the upper and lower classes. As a result of industrialisation, there was a huge boost of the middle and working class. As the Industrial Revolution progressed there was further social division. Capitalists, for example, employed industrial workers, who were one component of the working classes (each class included a wide range of occupations of varying status and income; there was a large gap, for example, between skilled and unskilled labour), but beneath the industrial workers was a submerged "under class" sometimes referred to as the "sunken people," which lived in poverty. The under class were more susceptible to exploitation and were therefore exploited.
The government consisted of a constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Victoria. Only the royalty could rule. Other politicians came from the aristocracy. The system was criticised by many as being in favour of the upper classes, and during the late 18th century, philosophers and writers began to question the social status of the nobility.

Social institutions
In 1842, a law was passed to ban women and children working in mines.
In 1849, 2,000 people a week died in a cholera epidemic.
In 1851, The Great Exhibition (the first World's Fair) was held in The Crystal Palace, with great success and international attention.
In 1859, Charles Darwin published "The Origin of Species", which led to great religious doubt and insecurity.
In 1861, Prince Albert died; Queen Victoria refused to go out in public for many years, and when she did she wore a widow's bonnet instead of the crown.
In 1888, the serial killer known as Jack the Ripper murdered and mutilated five (and possibly more) prostitutes on the streets of London, leading to world-wide press coverage and hysteria. Newspapers used the deaths to bring greater focus on the plight of the unemployed and to attack police and political leaders. The killer was never caught, and the affair contributed to Sir Charles Warren's resignation.
In 1891, education became free for every child.

Entertainment
The impetus of the Industrial Revolution had already occurred, but it was during this period that the full effects of industrialisation made themselves felt, leading to the mass society of the 20th century. The revolution led to the rise of railways across the country and great leaps forward in engineering, most famously by Isambard Kingdom Brunel.
Another great engineering feat in the Victorian Era was the sewage system in London. It was designed by Joseph Bazalgette in 1858. He proposed to build 82 miles of sewerage linked with over 1,000 miles of street sewers. Many problems were found but the sewers were completed. After this, Bazalgette designed the Thames Embankment which housed sewers, water pipes and the London Underground.
During the Victorian era, science grew into the discipline it is today. In addition to the increasing professionalism of university science, many Victorian gentlemen devoted their time to the study of natural history.
Photography was realised in 1839 by Louis Daguerre in France and William Fox Talbot in England. By 1900, hand-held cameras were available.
Although initially developed in the early years of the 19th century, gas lighting became widespread during the Victorian era in industry, homes, public buildings and the streets. The invention of the incandescent gas mantle in the 1890s greatly improved light output and ensured its survival as late as the 1960s. Hundreds of gas works were constructed in cities and towns across the country. In 1882, incandescent electric lights were introduced to London streets, although it took many years before they were installed everywhere.

Science, technology and engineering
Beginning in the late 1840s, major news organisations, clergymen and single women became increasingly interested in prostitution, which came to be known as "The Great Social Evil." Although estimates of the number of prostitutes in London by the 1850s vary widely (in his landmark study, Prostitution, William Acton reported that the police estimated there were 8,600 in 1857 London alone), it is enough to say that the number of women working the streets became increasingly difficult to ignore.
When the 1851 census publicly revealed a 4% demographic imbalance in favour of women (i.e. 4% more women than men), the problem of prostitution began to shift from a moral/religious cause to a socio-economic one. The 1851 census showed that the population of Great Britain was roughly 18 million; this meant that roughly 750,000 women would remain unmarried simply because there were not enough men. These women came to be referred to as "superfluous women" or "redundant women," and many essays were published discussing what, precisely, ought to be done with them.
While the Magdalen Hospital had been "reforming" prostitutes since the mid-18th century, the years between 1848 and 1870 saw a veritable explosion in the number of institutions working to "reclaim" these "fallen women" from the streets and retrain them for entry into respectable society—usually for work as domestic servants. The theme of prostitution and the "fallen woman" (an umbrella term used to describe any women who had sexual intercourse out of wedlock) became a staple feature of mid-Victorian literature and politics. In the writings of Henry Mayhew, Charles Booth and others, prostitution began to be seen as a social problem, rather than just a fact of urban life.
When Parliament passed the first of the Contagious Diseases Acts in 1864 (which allowed the local constabulary to force any woman suspected of venereal disease to submit to its inspection), Josephine Butler's crusade to repeal the CD Acts yoked the anti-prostitution cause with the emergent feminist movement. Butler attacked the long-established double standard of sexual morality.
Prostitutes were often presented as victims in sentimental literature such Thomas Hood's poem The Bridge of Sighs, Elizabeth Gaskell's novel Mary Barton and Dickens' novel Oliver Twist. The emphasis on the purity of women found in such works as Coventry Patmore's The Angel in the House led to the portrayal of the prostitute and fallen woman as soiled, corrupted, and in need of cleansing.
This emphasis on female purity was allied to the stress on the homemaking role of women, who helped to create a space free from the pollution and corruption of the city. In this respect the prostitute came to have symbolic significance as the embodiment of the violation of that divide. The double standard remained in force. Divorce legislation introduced in 1857 allowed for a man to divorce his wife for adultery, but a woman could only divorce if adultery was accompanied by cruelty. The anonymity of the city led to a large increase in prostitution and unsanctioned sexual relationships. Dickens and other writers associated prostitution with the mechanisation and industrialisation of modern life, portraying prostitutes as human commodities consumed and thrown away like refuse when they were used up. Moral reform movements attempted to close down brothels, something that has sometimes been argued to have been a factor in the concentration of street-prostitution in Whitechapel by the late 1880s.
By the time the CD Acts were repealed in 1886, Victorian England had been completely transformed. This era, which at its outset looked no different from the century before it, would end resembling far more the era that would follow.

See also

Altick, Richard Daniel. Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for the Modern Reader of Victorian Literature. W.W. Norton & Company: 1974. ISBN 0-393-09376-X.
Burton, Antoinette (editor). Politics and Empire in Victorian Britain: A Reader. Palgrave Macmillan: 2001. ISBN 0-312-29335-6.
Gay, Peter, The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud, 5 volumes, Oxford University Press, 1984-1989
Flanders, Judith. Inside the Victorian Home: A Portrait of Domestic Life in Victorian England. W.W. Norton & Company: 2004. ISBN 0-393-05209-5.
Mitchell, Sally. Daily Life in Victorian England. Greenwood Press: 1996. ISBN 0-313-29467-4.
Wilson, A. N. The Victorians. Arrow Books: 2002. ISBN 0-09-945186-7

2008-04-11T09:25:00.001-07:00

Edinburgh United F.C. are a Scottish junior football club from Edinburgh. Formed in 1985, the club quickly entered the junior grade of football. They presently compete in the East Region and play their home games at Paties Road Recreation Ground in the Colinton area of the city. This ground holds around 2,500 spectators, 200 of whom can be seated in the fairly well developed stand at the site.
Edinburgh United play in black and white strips (uniforms) and usually attract a home following somewhere between 50 and 100 spectators.
They are also the only "junior" club in Edinburgh, with all other "non-league" clubs either playing in the "senior" East of Scotland Football League or the local amateur leagues.

2008-04-10T08:06:00.001-07:00

In thermodynamics, chemical thermodynamics is the mathematical study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. Chemical thermodynamics can be generally thought of as the application of mathematical methods to the study of chemical questions and is concerned with the spontaneity of processes.
The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics. Starting from the first and second laws of thermodynamics, four equations called the "fundamental equations of Gibbs" can be derived. From these four, a multitude of equations, relating the thermodynamic properties of the thermodynamic system can be derived using relatively simple mathematics. This outlines the mathematical framework of chemical thermodynamics.

History
The primary objective of chemical thermodynamics is the establishment of a criterion for the determination of the feasibility or spontaneity of a given transformation. In this manner, chemical thermodynamics is typically used to predict the energy exchanges that occur in the following processes:
The following state functions are of primary concern in chemical thermodynamics:
Most identities in chemical thermodynaimcs arise from application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, particularly the law of conservation of energy, to these state functions.

Chemical reactions
Phase changes
The formation of solutions
Internal energy (U)
Enthalpy (H).
Entropy (S)
Gibbs free energy (G) Overview
It is the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or transform other chemical substances. Breaking or making of chemical bonds, involves energy, that may be either absorbed or evolved from a chemical system.
Energy that can be released (or absorbed) because of a reaction between a set of chemical substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants.This change in energy is called the change in internal energy of a chemical reaction. It can be calculated using the formula
ΔU_products is the internal energy of formation of the product molecules. The internal energy change of a process is equal to the heat change if it is measured under conditions of constant volume, as in a closed rigid container such as a bomb calorimeter. However, under conditions of constant pressure, as in reactions in vessels open to the atmosphere, the heat change measured is not always equal to the internal energy change, because pressure-volume work also releases or absorbs energy. (The heat change at constant pressure is called the enthalpy change, in this case the enthalpy of formation).
Another useful term is the heat of combustion, it is the energy released due to a combustion reaction and often applied in the study of fuels. Food is similar to hydrocarbon fuel and carbohydrate fuels, and when it is oxidized, its caloric content is similar (though not assessed in the same way as a hydrocarbon fuel-- see food energy).
In chemical thermodynamics the term used for the chemical potential energy is chemical potential and for chemical transformation an equation most often used is Gibbs-Duhem equation

Chemical energy
In most cases of interest in chemical thermodynamics there are internal degrees of freedom and processes, such as chemical reactions and phase transitions, which always create entropy unless they are at equilibrium, or are maintained at a "running equilibrium" through "quasi-static" changes by being coupled to constraining devices, such as pistons or electrodes, to deliver and receive external work. Even for homogeneous "bulk" materials, the free energy functions depend on the composition, as do all the extensive thermodynamic potentials, including the internal energy. If the quantities { N_i }, the number of chemical species, are omitted from the formulae, it is impossible to describe compositional changes.

Gibbs function

Main article: Chemical affinity Chemical affinity
In solution chemistry and biochemistry, the Gibbs free energy decrease (∂G/∂ξ, in molar units, denoted cryptically by ΔG) is commonly used as a surrogate for (−T times) the entropy produced by spontaneous chemical reactions in situations where there is no work being done; or at least no "useful" work; i.e., other than perhaps some ± PdV. The assertion that all spontaneous reactions have a negative ΔG is merely a restatement of the combined law of thermodynamics, giving it the physical dimensions of energy and somewhat obscuring its significance in terms of entropy. When there is no useful work being done, it would be less misleading to use the Legendre transforms of the entropy appropriate for constant T, or for constant T and P, the Massieu functions −F/T and −G/T respectively.

Solutions

Main article: non-equilibrium thermodynamics Non equilibrium
In this regard, it is crucial to understand the role of walls and other constraints, and the distinction between independent processes and coupling. Contrary to the clear implications of many reference sources, the previous analysis is not restricted to homogenous, isotropic bulk systems which can deliver only PdV work to the outside world, but applies even to the most structured systems. There are complex systems with many chemical "reactions" going on at the same time, some of which are really only parts of the same, overall process. An independent process is one that could proceed even if all others were unaccountably stopped in their tracks. Understanding this is perhaps a "thought experiment" in chemical kinetics, but actual examples exist.
A gas reaction which results in an increase in the number of molecules will lead to an increase in volume at constant external pressure. If it occurs inside a cylinder closed with a piston, the equilibrated reaction can proceed only by doing work against an external force on the piston. The extent variable for the reaction can increase only if the piston moves, and conversely, if the piston is pushed inward, the reaction is driven backwards.
Similarly, a redox reaction might occur in an electrochemical cell with the passage of current in wires connecting the electrodes. The half-cell reactions at the electrodes are constrained if no current is allowed to flow. The current might be dissipated as joule heating, or it might in turn run an electrical device like a motor doing mechanical work. An automobile lead-acid battery can be recharged, driving the chemical reaction backwards. In this case as well, the reaction is not an independent process. Some, perhaps most, of the Gibbs free energy of reaction may be delivered as external work.
The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and phosphate can drive the force times distance work delivered by living muscles, and synthesis of ATP is in turn driven by a redox chain in mitochondria and chloroplasts, which involves the transport of ions across the membranes of these cellular organelles. The coupling of processes here, and in the previous examples, is often not complete. Gas can leak slowly past a piston, just as it can slowly leak out of a rubber balloon. Some reaction may occur in a battery even if no external current is flowing. There is usually a coupling coefficient, which may depend on relative rates, which determines what percentage of the driving free energy is turned into external work, or captured as "chemical work", a misnomer for the free energy of another chemical process.

System constraints
In the preface section to popular book Basic Chemical Thermodynamics by physical chemist Brian Smith, originally published in 1973, and now in the 5th edition, we find the following overview of the subject as it is perceived in college:

See also

2008-04-09T08:04:00.001-07:00

The Scottish Institute of Sport (SIS) is the national sports development body in Scotland. It is part of sportscotland, a publicly owned company which is partly funded by the UK's National Lottery.
The SIS was established in 1998. In 2002 it moved into a custom-built facility in the grounds of the University of Stirling, adjacent to the university's own sports facilities and the Scottish National Swimming Academy.

2008-04-08T09:14:00.001-07:00
History
Cityjet operates the following routes (April 2007):

Destinations
There is speculation that the airline may start services from Shannon Airport, following Aer Lingus's decision to end the Heathrow flights there. Destinations that may be served from Shannon are Paris (Charles de Gaulle International Airport), Amsterdam Schiphol Airport and London City Airport

Paris (Charles de Gaulle International Airport) to Birmingham, Dublin, Edinburgh, Florence, Gothenburg (Gothenburg-Landvetter Airport) and Zurich.
Paris (Orly Airport) to London (London City Airport).
Dublin to London (London City Airport). Cityjet for Air France
The CityJet fleet consists of the following aircraft as of May 2007:
In July 2006, the average age of the CityJet fleet was 19.7 years old and it is thus one of the oldest passenger fleets in Europe. The airline will replace the 146's with second-hand Avro RJ85 aircraft, which have been sourced from Mesaba in the USA. Deliveries are ongoing.
At early July 2007 the average fleet age has dropped to 16.1 years due to some of the new RJ85 aircraft entering the fleet.
At late October 2007 the average fleet age has further dropped to 14.2 years.
New aircraft registrations are EI-RJA to EI-RJP AND EI-RJR to EI-RJX

2008-04-07T10:21:00.001-07:00

Kråkerøy is an island and a former municipality in Østfold county, Norway.
The island of Kråkerøy was separated from Glemmen as a municipality of its own January 1, 1908. At that time Kråkerøy had a population of 3,311. The rural municipality was (together with Borge, Onsøy and Rolvsøy) merged with the city of Fredrikstad January 1, 1994. Prior to the merger Kråkerøy had a population of 7,445.
In 1948 Kråkerøy was the site of the Kråkerøy speech by then Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen, which became an important part of Norwegian political history.

2008-04-06T09:19:00.001-07:00

In macroeconomics, a Recession is a decline in any country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), or negative real economic growth, for two or more successive quarters of a year. However, this definition is not universally accepted. The American National Bureau of Economic Research defines a recession more ambiguously as "a significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few months." A recession may involve simultaneous declines in coincident measures of overall economic activity such as employment, investment, and corporate profits. Recessions may be associated with falling prices (deflation), or, alternatively, sharply rising prices (inflation) in a process known as stagflation. A severe or long recession is referred to as an economic depression. A devastating breakdown of an economy is called economic collapse. Newspaper columnist Sidney J. Harris amusingly distinguished terms this way: a recession is when you lose your job; a depression is when I lose mine.
Market-oriented economies are characterized by economic cycles, but actual recessions (declines in economic activity) do not always result. There is much debate as to whether government intervention smoothes the cycle (see Keynesianism), exaggerates it (see Real business cycle theory), or even creates it (see monetarism).

Causes of recessions
The precise causes of recession are the subject of fierce debate among academics and policy makers although most would agree that recessions are caused by some combination of endogenous cyclical forces and exogenous shocks. For example, Keynesian economists and Real business cycle theorists would all disagree about the precise cause of the business cycle breakdown, but most would agree that purely exogenous factors like the price of oil, weather conditions, or a war could by themselves cause a temporary recession, or, conversely, short term economic growth. Keynes himself, however, pointed out that when interest rates get too little -- below about 2% -- then people no longer have an incentive to save, preferring to hold money for what he called transactions demands. If there are no savings, banks get no money with which to make loans, and it is this drying up of savings -- and loans -- that caused the regular business cycle to break down, according to Keynes. Austrian school economists hold that it is an inflation of the money supply that causes modern recessions and that recessions are positive forces in-so-much that they are the market's natural mechanism of undoing the misallocation of resources present during the boom or inflationary phase. Most monetarists believe that the cause of most recessions in the United States is this mishandling of the money supply, while an extreme change in the structure of the economy are responsible for very few.

2008-04-05T10:19:00.001-07:00

Astrakhan Oblast (Russian: Астраха́нская о́бласть, Astrakhanskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast).

Geography
Astrakhan Oblast is located in the Moscow Time Zone (MSK/MSD). UTC offset is +0300 (MSK)/+0400 (MSD).

Administrative divisions
Population: 1,005,276 (2002 Census); 998,114 (1989 Census)
Ethnic groups: According to the 2002 Census the 'national composition' was • Russian 69.69% • Kazakh 14.21% • Tatar 7.02% • Ukrainian 1.25% • Chechen 1.00% • Azeri 0.82% • Kalmyk 0.71% • Armenian 0.63% • Nogay 0.45% • Roma 0.43% • Avar 0.42% • Lezgin 0.36% • Dargin 0.35% • Belarusians 0.26% • Turkmen 0.21% • Korean 0.21% • Astrakhan Tatar 0.20% • German 0.14% • Kumyks 0.14% • Georgian 0.12% • Chuvash 0.12% • Turkish 0.11% • Uzbek 0.10% • Jewish 0.10% • Mordvin 0.09% • Tabasaran 0.08% • with many other groups of less than eight hundred persons each. • An additional 0.29% of residents declined to state their nationality or ethnocultural identity on the census questionnaire.

History

Khazars
Saqsin
Kimeks
Nogays
Astrakhan Khanate
Kalmyks
Music of Astrakhan

2008-04-04T09:58:00.001-07:00

Kelso United F.C. is a senior football club based in Kelso, currently playing in the East of Scotland Football League.
Founded in around 1924, they play their home matches at Woodside Park on Dry House Lane. The first league the club played in was the Border Junior League. Their first notable success at this level was winning the Dudley Cup in 1935. The next season United joined the Berwickshire FA, despite being based in Roxburghshire. Season 1937-38 was very successful for the club, as the Conan Doyle Cup, the Dudley Cup and the league Championship Shield were all added to the Honours list.
Although no one from Kelso at that time became an internationalist, many went to bigger, professional clubs.
After the war Kelso United reformed and entered a 2nd XI into the Kelso and District League, while the main team played in the Border Amateur league. In 1957-58 the club lifted the South of Scotland Cup East section, but lost the overall final to West section winners Broughton.
Season 1959/60 was another good year with the Border Cup and the Acrum 5-a-side competition being annexed.
In the mid-sixties after a massive gap of 29 years, United were once again Border Amateur League champions. Big decisions were made leading up to 1967-68, one was that the first team would join the East of Scotland League and that the second team which had disappeared, would reform and take the first teams place in the Border League. This was a successful move as the United team were League and King Cup runners-up. In 1971 the club decided to work more on bringing in local players, but this was not sustainable and they left the East of Scotland League. However, back in the Amateur League the club flourished, conquering the Beveridge Cup as well as the South of Scotland Cup. In 1974 they won the Border Cup.
By 1974-75 the club felt ready to rejoin the East of Scotland League, and in 1980 won their biggest cup yet, the King Cup. Since then the club have held their own in the league, reaching the final of the Image Printers Cup in the mid-nineties as well as getting promoted to the Premier league in 2004, although they were relegated at the end of season 2005-06
Under the current regime, many talented youngsters are being brought up through the age groups to play alongside the more experienced players. With this sort of development, Kelso Thistle will be hoping for a swift return to the Premier League.
Annan Athletic | Civil Service Strollers | Craigroyston | Easthouses Lily | Edinburgh City | Edinburgh University | Heriot-Watt University | Lothian Thistle | Preston Athletic | Selkirk | Spartans | Whitehill Welfare
Coldstream | Dalbeattie Star | Edinburgh Athletic | Eyemouth United | Gala Fairydean | Hawick Royal Albert | Kelso United | Ormiston | Peebles Rovers | Tynecastle | Vale of Leithen

2008-04-03T09:37:00.001-07:00

The sidereal year is the time taken for the Sun to return to the same position with respect to the stars of the celestial sphere. It is the orbital period of Earth, equal to 365.25636042 mean solar days (31,558,149.540 seconds), that is 366.25636042 earth rotations or sidereal days. (A true cycle will always compare two objects that differ mathematically by exactly 1). The sidereal year is 20 minutes and 24 seconds longer than the tropical year.
The Sun and the stars cannot be seen at the same time; if one looks every dawn at the eastern sky, the last stars seen appearing are not always the same. In a week or two an upward shift can be noted. As an example, in July in the Northern Hemisphere, Orion cannot be seen in the dawn sky, but in August it becomes visible. In a year, all the constellations rotate through the entire sky.
If one looks regularly at the sky before dawn, this motion is much more noticeable and easier to measure than the north/south shift of the sunrise point in the horizon, which defines the tropical year on which the Gregorian calendar is based. This is the reason many cultures started their year on the first day a particular special star, (Sirius, for instance), could be seen in the East at dawn. In Hesiod's Works and Days, the times of the year for sowing, harvest, and so on are given by reference to the first visibility of stars.
Up to the time of Hipparchus, the years measured by the stars were thought to be exactly as long as the tropical years. In fact, sidereal years are very slightly longer than tropical years. The difference is caused by the precession of the equinoxes. One sidereal year is roughly equal to 1 + 1/26000 or 1.000039 tropical years.

2008-04-02T10:24:00.001-07:00
Overview
Creator, Greg Garcia wrote the pilot while working on another sitcom, Yes, Dear. He initially pitched the series to Fox, which passed on the series. He then approached NBC which optioned the pilot on a cast-contingent basis, meaning they would order the pilot provided a suitable cast could be assembled.
The pilot episode featured the songs "It Takes Two" by Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock, "99 Luftballons" by Nena, "Been Caught Stealing" by Jane's Addiction, as well as "Do The Monkey" by The Wiggles.
Jason Lee was approached for the lead role, but was uninterested in working in television and passed on the series twice before finally agreeing to read the pilot script. Though he liked the pilot, he was hesitant to commit until after meeting with Garcia.

Conception
The series premiere on September 20, 2005, drew in 15.2 million viewers in the United States, earning a 6.6 rating. By the airing of the third episode it was apparent that My Name Is Earl was the most popular of NBC's new fall offerings, and a full season (22 episodes) was ordered. In its first month, it was also the most popular new sitcom of the season to air on any network and was the most popular sitcom on any network in the coveted 18–49-year-old demographic. The show was renewed for a second season, which although has seen a dip in average viewers (around 10 million or so in Season 2 compared to 12 million for Season 1) is still a critics' juggernaut and has recently been renewed for another season.
Season 1 #40 (10.9) Tuesdays at 9:00 (September-December 2005) Thursdays at 9:00 (January-May 2006)
Season 2 #58 (8.9) Thursdays at 8:00

Ratings

Characters

Earl J. Hickey (Jason Lee) — The protagonist and narrator of the show. In flashbacks, we see Earl before he began reforming himself: a jobless ne'er-do-well with no respect for authority or just about anyone. Self-described as the guy who would've stolen anything that wasn't nailed down, Earl now stands by the principle of good karma by doing good things and avoiding bad ones. He was supposed to be named after his father, Carl, but an extra loop on a cursive "C" was Earl's first step into a life of misfortune. Earl has never had a photograph taken without blinking at the wrong moment, something regularly demonstrated throughout the show.
Randy Hickey (Ethan Suplee) — Earl's dim-witted brother who assists Earl with righting his wrongs. He initially assumed he and Earl would resume stealing once Earl completed his list. Despite his poor intellect, he often says profound things and has proven to be extremely helpful to Earl in his missions, though he is sometimes resentful when Earl's list forces him to make sacrifices. He has a boyishly innocent nature. He has a schoolboy crush on Catalina. It is also revealed that he has an extreme fear of birds; he is afraid of the pope's mitre because he thinks there might be a chicken under it. He mistakenly believes that ET is not an alien, but a monkey. Squeaky noises make his toes hurt. He hates cats and is allergic to them. He holds the Camden County record for staring at the sun.
Joy Turner (née Darville, previously Hickey) (Jaime Pressly) — Earl's ex-wife, Darnell's current wife, and mother of Dodge and Earl Jr., neither of whom are Earl's biological children. She operates a nail parlor in her home. Though she puts on a front of self-centeredness, she fully appreciates the people around her, even Earl, and has been found to be a dedicated, loving mom. She is also a very good fighter, a fact she puts down to "watchin' a lot of Springer" — when she was pregnant with Dodge, Joy knocked Earl's girlfriend Jessie (and her front teeth) out.
Catalina Aruca Hickey (Nadine Velazquez) — A maid at the motel where Earl and Randy currently reside. She is an illegal immigrant who entered the United States on January 1, 2000 (just as Earl and the gang assumed they were the last humans alive). She learned English a year ago. She worked for a month as a pole dancer at Club Chubby and was very successful at it because instead of dancing, she jumped. She has a fear of snakes and rape. Her mother is dead but Catalina tells others not to feel sad, as "It's OK, it was either her or me." She also says her brother killed her father, her father was shot down and her cousins were slain execution style in the Festival of Redemption. She and Joy have a mutual hatred stemming back from when they first met. (The first thing Joy ever said to Catalina was "who's the whore?"). During Season 2, Catalina went back to stripping in order to help Earl, although she had to help Joy along the way. She seems to be very fond of Earl, even hitting on him when they first met. Earl appreciated but rejected the pass because Randy called "dibs." Her last name, Aruca, hasn't been mentioned on the show but was revealed in a newspaper article in Bad Karma. She recently married Randy to get back to America after being deported. While she originally found Randy to be unattractive, she later became infatuated with him after they had fantastic sex, and, in somewhat of a role-reversal, Randy now reffers to them being together as just "a greencard marriage".
Darnell "Crab Man" Turner (Eddie Steeples) — Joy's new husband and father of Earl Jr. Despite this, he and Earl are good friends (although they rarely do anything together, they greet each other every episode with the famous lines: "Hey, Earl!" ... "Hey, Crabman!"). Darnell works as a cook at the local Crab Shack (hence his nickname). It was revealed that his real name is "Harry Monroe," (a reference to Richard Pryor's character in Stir Crazy who is also named Harry Munroe) but he was forced to change it through the Witness Protection Program. Although generally calm and soft-spoken, Darnell is implied to be very intelligent (graduated college at age 14) and occasionally makes highly intellectual statements, which the others usually ignore or brush off. He has a fondness for cheese and a pet box turtle named Mr. Turtle. Before marrying Joy and moving to the trailer park, he lived in Camden with his grandmother, where he grew a large amount of marijuana in his bedroom; his grandmother didn't know what the plants were and simply thought he enjoyed gardening. Main characters

Main article: List of minor characters on My Name Is Earl Recurring characters
For a complete version of The List, see Earl's list
While hospitalized and under the influence of morphine, Earl hears Carson Daly talk about karma on TV and comes to the conclusion that his bad luck has been caused by his lifestyle. (It is typical of Earl that he believes Carson Daly invented the concept of karma.) He decides to make a list of everything bad he has ever done, with the intention of making up for all of his mistakes and crossing the items off the list as he goes.
Earl's first good deed, picking up garbage, leads to him finding his lost winning lottery ticket.
Karma is a recurring theme throughout the show, and its effects are shown not just on Earl, but also on other characters, such as Earl's ex-con friend Ralph, who ends up wanted by the police again after refusing Earl's offer to help him change his ways and trying to steal Earl's money.
In some instances, Karma exists not only as a theme, but also a character that dictates Earl's actions. Earl will occasionally address Karma directly as if it were a deity or an otherwise omniscient and powerful being, and will (almost) always yield to whatever he perceives as its will. Earl proclaims in one episode, "I am Karma's bitch." The List is portrayed as the physical manifestation of Karma. Karma is also portrayed in the final episode of the first season as the old woman who ran Earl over in the first episode ("I saw Lady Karma again")
Earl's behavior raises an interesting question of morality: Is he motivated only by his desire to gain good 'karma', thus acting only in his own self-interest, or is he truly sorry for everything he has done, and has turned his life around? The show is somewhat ambiguous on this matter, with different episodes suggesting different answers, and some implying that it could be both. For example, in episode 1.04 Earl intends to confess to his ex-girlfriend that he faked his death to get away from her because she was too clingy. When Catalina points out that this will hurt her feelings and asks him what's more important, his list or someone's feelings, Earl responds, "I dunno. My list?" On the other hand, Earl shows true empathy in episode 2.02 when Joy is arrested. He eventually passes out from worrying about Joy. When he asks Catalina why that happened, she responds, "Because you're a good person, Earl."
In a number of episodes, Earl will not cross something off if he isn't sure that he has solved all the problems that his actions caused. For example, in episode 1.15, Earl states that while he has crossed someone off his list, when he discovers that the person is going to kill himself, that he can't not help him. Earl even says that the list is making him feel things he didn't feel before. It's been suggested that while Earl may have started the list for his own ends, he has eventually come to genuinely care about righting many of the wrongs in his life.

The List
The state in which the show takes place is never mentioned, but according to the creator, Gregory Thomas Garcia, the show takes place in the fictional town of Camden County (not to be confused with the actual Camden Counties in New Jersey, Missouri, Georgia, and North Carolina). Creator Garcia said that the town is named after his son.
The references to Maryland locations (such as Hagerstown, Cumberland, Shady Grove, and Frostburg State University) are due to his familiarity with an area he hails from and that "the show doesn't technically take place anywhere ... we like to think it's anywhere. We don't really say exactly where it is." The pilot episode showed that Earl and Joy drove from Camden County to Las Vegas, Nevada within a single night, suggesting a location in the American Southwest.
The street scenes seen in most episodes are shot on Woodley Avenue in Van Nuys, CA, next to the Sepulveda Dam Recreation Area. Joy's wedding and the Win a Dodge Neon contest ("White Lie Christmas") take place at the Recreation Area. The exterior hotel shots are filmed at the Palm Tree Inn in North Hills, California. And the set for the trailer park where Joy and Darnell live is situated in a vacant lot on Louse Ave. and Roscoe next to a church in Van Nuys, California. The church itself appeared in an episode as the orphanage Joy visits in "Broke Joy's Fancy Figurine" (1.6). The scenes involving the ransom drop in the episode "Buried Treasure" were filmed on High Street in Moorpark, California. The exterior of the convenience store where Earl bought the lottery ticket and the street where he was hit by the car in the first episode (with the car wash in the background) are in Beaumont, CA.

Setting and shooting locations

Main article: List of My Name Is Earl episodes Episodes
Season Releases
Season 1 DVD Set
The season one "mini-episode", titled Bad Karma, is an alternate version of the events of the pilot episode featuring what would have happened if, instead of seeing Carson Daly talking about karma while in the hospital, Earl saw Stewie Griffin of Family Guy talking about vengeance.
The season one DVD set also came in two "special" versions only available at certain stores:
Season 2 DVD Set

At Best Buy locations the set came wrapped in a cosy replica of Earl's flannel shirt and contained a limited-edition bonus CD with three songs, including the show's theme song. There were at least two variations of the material used for this flannel replica as well as two types of buttons. Pictures of these bonus items can be seen here.
The DVD set at Target stores featured a limited-edition bonus DVD with extra bloopers and other bonus features.
A limited edition Season 2 DVD set at Target and Best Buy contain a scratch and sniff card for use with the viewing of the "Get a Real Job" episode. DVD releases
The show is unusual among sitcoms not only for its lack of a laugh track, but also for its soundtrack. The music on the show includes bands as widely varied as Queen, Rush, Metallica, Thin Lizzy, The Band, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Blue Öyster Cult, Black Rebel Motorcycle Club, Buckethead, The Who, Lynyrd Skynyrd, MC Young, Jerry Reed, The Steepwater Band, Nick Drake, Eric Clapton, Guns N' Roses, Crosby, Stills, Nash, & Young, The Cardigans, Nancy Sinatra, Cyndi Lauper, AC/DC, Jet, Cat Stevens, Ted Nugent, Santana, The Dillinger Escape Plan, The Ozark Mountain Daredevils,The Doors, The Wiggles, Dire Straits, Canned Heat, Bob Marley, ELO, Joni Mitchell, Los Lobos, Social Distortion,The Ramones, Jet and Beastie Boys, as well as a blues underscore by composers Mark Leggett and Danny Lux. A lot of the soundtrack was replaced with generic background music in the DVD, likely for copyright reasons. A often featured song in the series is Hair of the Dog by Nazareth.

Soundtrack
Jason Lee and Ethan Suplee both got their start and co-starred in four Kevin Smith films: Mallrats, Chasing Amy, Dogma and Clerks II. My Name Is Earl has contained several references to the "View Askewniverse" (the universe in which most of Smith's films take place):

Earl claimed to have robbed a "Quick Stop" - a convenience store which was the main location of Smith's films Clerks and the sequel Clerks 2. Lee and Suplee both had appearances in Clerks 2.
Whenever Earl wakes up Randy, the first thing that Randy says in his half-awakeness is "poopie trim" — in Mallrats, when Ethan Suplee's character, Willam Black, is interrupted from trying to see the hidden image in a Magic Eye, he says, "poopie trim." The same is uttered by Chris Rock when he is asleep on the train in Dogma.
When Randy first takes the GED, he fills in the bubbles to make a picture of a sailboat. The hidden image of the Magic Eye picture he was trying to see in Mallrats was of a sailboat.
In "O Karma, Where Art Thou?" Earl refers to a roll of toilet paper as "the soft stuff", which is one of the old mans requests before he enters the bathroom in "Clerks".
In "White Lie Christmas," Randy says that his favorite-ever Christmas present was "Weeble-wobbles." Weebles were the gift that Randal asked for when Santa was demonstrating his toy making machine located in the Apartment beside the video store in "Clerks: The Holiday Special" comic book. Kevin Smith connections and allusions

Easter eggs
During its first season, My Name Is Earl was aired in HD, where fourth-wall breaking signs were seen, out of frame in standard-definition. The second season was broadcast in letterbox format on standard-definition channels, so further widescreen gags are unlikely. These signs were also fully visible on the DVD set.

In "Randy's Touchdown" (1.3), when Earl is in the copy store, Randy is in the background holding a handwritten sign that reads "High Def Rocks." The sign can only be seen when the show is viewed in 16x9 widescreen associated with high definition digital broadcasts.
Another sign legible only in widescreen reading "Carl Hickey loves High Def" can be seen among the campaign materials in "Cost Dad an Election" (1.9). However, the sign is still only half visible in widescreen.
In "Something to Live For" (1.15), when Earl brings Philo to the Crab Shack to see Joy, the beer spigot (out of frame in 4:3) says "HD Draft". Spanish language easter eggs

Nominated for 2006 Golden Globe for Best Television Series - Musical or Comedy.
Jason Lee nominated for 2006 Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Television Series - Musical or Comedy.
Jason Lee nominated for 2005/06 Screen Actors Guild award for best actor in a comedy series.
Cast nominated for 2005/06 Screen Actors Guild award for best ensemble in a comedy series.
Jaime Pressly nominated for a 2005/06 Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series.
Marc Buckland won the 2005/06 Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series (episode: Pilot).
Gregory Thomas Garcia won the 2005/06 Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series (episode: Pilot).
Jason Lee nominated for 2007 Kid's Choice Award for Best Actor.
Nominated for 2007 BAFTA TV Awards for International Programme of the Year [3].
Jaime Pressly won the 2006/2007 Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series.

2008-04-01T10:30:00.001-07:00

Digital terrestrial television in the United Kingdom is made up of over fifty primarily free-to-air television channels (including all the national analogue stations) and over twenty radio channels from Freeview, Top Up TV and Setanta Sports. It is intended that digital terrestrial television will completely replace analogue terrestrial television in the United Kingdom by 2012.

Receiving digital terrestrial television in the UK
Digital terrestrial television provides many more channels than analogue television. For many viewers it offers a higher-quality picture (with many channels broadcasting in 16:9 anamorphic widescreen). A number of interactive services, including a newer version of Teletext, are also offered.
An eight-day electronic programme guide (EPG) allows viewers to see the names, descriptions and broadcast times for programmes. As this was not an original feature of digital terrestrial television (it was introduced in 2004), some receivers feature an EPG with details of the current and next programme only.
A third-party proprietary 14-day EPG is also provided by a company called 4TV, who formerly carried a 7-day service when only now and next data was normal. This is only available on boxes which support their format and pay a licence fee, generally resulting in more expensive boxes. The service is carried on Multiplex D, meaning that not all viewers can even receive the data.

Features

History
Digital terrestrial television launched in the UK on 15 November 1998 (just after digital satellite television on 1 October 1998). The technology required that the UK government license the broadcast of channels in six groups, or multiplex (usually abbreviated to 'mux') labelled 1, 2, A, B, C, and D.

Development and launch

Main article: ITV Digital ITV Digital

Main article: Freeview Freeview

Main article: Top Up TV Top Up TV
Unless noted otherwise, channels may broadcast twenty-four hours a day (though not all use all of this available time).

List of digital terrestrial channels

Logical Channel Number
ITV1 is the brand name for 12 of the 15 regional ITV Network franchises for England, Wales, southern Scotland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Each of these 12 franchises has a separate brand name used prior to local programming, see ITV1. STV is the brand name for the franchises for central and northern Scotland. UTV operates the franchise for Northern Ireland. All 15 franchises broadcast 0925-0600; GMTV operates the franchise for national breakfast television and broadcasts 0600-0925.
Five, S4C and S4C2 will move to a public service multiplex at the start of digital switchover, using the bandwidth created by switching from 16QAM to 64QAM mode, so will be transmitted from all 1,154 UK transmitters. Multiplexes A, C and D will only be transmitted from the current 80 transmitters after switchover but with higher powered signals (and in 64QAM mode). Television channels

Text and interactive services

Radio stations

The multiplexes
Operated by the BBC; broadcasts nationwide in 16QAM mode at 18 megabits/second

TV: BBC One (regional variation), BBC Two (national variation), BBC Three, CBBC Channel, BBC News 24
Radio: BBC Radio Wales (Wales only), BBC Radio Scotland (Scotland only), BBC Radio Ulster (Northern Ireland only), BBC Radio Cymru (Wales only), BBC Radio nan Gàidheal (Scotland only), BBC Radio Foyle (Northern Ireland Only)
Text/Interactive: BBCi, Multiplex 1
Operated by Digital 3&4 (an ITV/Channel 4 consortium); broadcasts nationwide in 64QAM mode at 24 megabits/second

TV: ITV (regional service), Channel 4, ITV2, ITV3, More4, E4, ITV4, Film4+1, CITV
Radio: U105 (Northern Ireland only), Heart (except Scotland), Radio Music Shop (except Scotland)
Text/Interactive: Teletext, Teletext Holidays (Wales only), Teletext Cars, Teletext on 4 Multiplex 2
Operated by SDN (owned by ITV plc); broadcasts nationwide in 64QAM mode at 24 megabits/second

TV: S4C Digidol (Wales only), Five, TeleG (Scotland only), ABC1 (except Wales), QVC, UKTV Gold*, bid tv, price-drop tv, Thomas Cook TV, UKTV Style*, British Eurosport*, Five US, Five Life, Top Up Anytime 1*, Top Up Anytime 2*, Top Up Anytime 3*, S4C2 (Wales only), Teachers' TV, Television X*, Setanta Sports 1*
Radio: BBC Radio 1, BBC Radio 2, BBC Radio 3, BBC Radio 4, Mojo (except Wales), Heat (except Wales)
Text/Interactive: Teletext Holidays (except Wales), Teletext Games Multiplex A
Operated by the BBC; broadcasts nationwide in 16QAM mode at 18 megabits/second

TV: BBC Four, CBeebies, BBC Parliament, Community Channel
Radio: BBC 1Xtra, BBC Radio Five Live, BBC Five Live Sports Extra, BBC 6 Music, BBC 7, BBC Asian Network
Text/Interactive: BBCi (301, 302, 303, 305) Multiplex B
Operated by National Grid Wireless; broadcasts nationwide in 16QAM mode at 18 megabits/second

TV: Sky Three, UKTV History, E4+1, SmileTV, Sky News, Sky Sports News
Radio: talkSPORT, Clyde 1, Premier Christian Radio, Virgin Radio
Text/Interactive: Sky Text, TVTV Digital Multiplex C
Operated by National Grid Wireless; broadcasts nationwide in 16QAM mode at 18 megabits/second
* Pay TV service

TV: The Hits, UKTV Bright Ideas, Ftn, TMF, Ideal World, Film4, ITV2+1
Radio: BBC World Service, The Hits Radio, Smash Hits, Kiss 100, Magic 105.4, Q, Oneword, 102.2 Smooth FM, Kerrang!
Text/Interactive: 4TVInteractive Multiplex D
Some of these multiplexes carry a much larger number of services than others for various reasons. Firstly, a number of services share bandwidth on a timesharing basis — so some channels turn off when others are on (for example one will never see CBeebies and BBC Four on air at the same time, as they use the same space in Multiplex B, with CBeebies broadcasting from 6am until 7pm and BBC Four from 7pm onwards; the situation is the same for CBBC and BBC Three). In addition, some multiplexes have fewer channels so as to allocate more data to fewer services, thus ensuring higher quality (for example, BBC One on Multiplex 1 is carried as a 4.4 Megabit stream, while Sky Sports News typically uses 2 Megabits per second).
On top of this, the modulation of the multiplexes can be varied to squeeze higher digital bitrates out of the same portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. This comes at the cost of making it harder to get a good signal. There are three basic modulation schemes currently in use in the UK; in order of bandwidth efficiency, they are: QPSK (only used for tests in the Oxford and London areas), 16 QAM and 64 QAM, each with a progressively higher bitrate, at the cost of progressively higher likelihood of signal degradation. Currently multiplexes 2 and A use 64 QAM (and are consequently more prone to poor reception) while the other multiplexes all currently use 16 QAM.
Furthermore, multiplexes can make use of statistical multiplexing at the MPEG video coder whereby the bitrate allocated to a channel within the multiplex can vary dynamically depending on how difficult it is to code the picture content at that precise time, and how much demand there is for bandwidth from other channels. In this way, complex pictures with lots of detail may demand a higher bitrate at one instant and this can result in the bitrate allocated to another channel in the same multiplex being reduced if the second channel is currently transmitting pictures which are easier to code, with less fine detail. The only channel on the DTT system not to use statistical multiplexing, i.e. has a constant bit rate, is BBC One. This is so the English Regions and Nations can perform a simple transmultiplex, or T-Mux, operation and insert their local version of BBC One over the London feed straight into the existing BBC Multiplex 1 without having to re-code the entire multiplex at each regional centre, requiring specialist (and costly) equipment at several locations.

Use of multiplexing technology
Better implemented compression technology has provided for two additional television stations on the National Grid Wireless multiplex using the same bandwidth, with the possibility of more to follow on this and some other multiplexes.
This technique is only suitable for the multiplexes that are identical nationwide. On Multiplex 1 where BBC One is one of 15 regional versions, and BBC Two is one of four national variants (England, Scotland, NI and BBC 2W in Wales) it has proved harder to increase the number of channels carried Any such change would, however, render obsolete all existing receivers as new decoder set-top boxes or integrated digital televisions would be required, unless they are able to be reprogrammed for additional codecs which is widely not the case. BSkyB's proposals are pending approval by OfCom, where these issues are likely to be a consideration.
The BBC, who would like to broadcast high-definition television on at least some Freeview channels, is considering an alternative method utilising spare capacity at night to allow the download of high definition programmes for later replay. The use of alternative codecs for the sake of high-definition is likely to be less of an issue, due to the fact that new televisions are required to view such services, which could include any new standard that might be agreed. In addition the BBC's Research and Development team have invented a new transmission method for delivering twice the bandwidth that can currently be delivered via each DTT frequency. An explanation is that 2 signals are sent on the same frequency in slightly different directions and at slightly different times. However the "spatial multiplexing" requires new transmitters to be built and will need a new aerial and box.

New compression technology
For full list of dates, see Digital switchover dates in the United Kingdom.
The British Government has given Ofcom and Digital UK the joint task of switching off the analogue terrestrial signals. The switchoff will occur on an ITV sub-region basis.
¹ At the switchover it is planned that Caldbeck will broadcast both England and Scotland muliplexes to better serve viewers north of the border and Sandale will cease to broadcast TV.

Mobile Television services
Wireless broadband services
Wider coverage for advanced services in remote and rural areas
More multiplexes carrying more channels
High definition services

2008-03-29T10:03:00.001-07:00

- to the north - to the north-east - to the east - to the south-east - to the south-west - to the west - to the north-west Morningside (2.3 km) Sandringham (1081 m) Wesley (1.6 km) New Windsor (1.5 km) Avondale (2.2 km) Waterview (2.8 km) Owairaka is an Auckland suburb.
Owairaka is under the local governance of the Auckland City Council.
According to the 2001 census, Owairaka has a population of 6678.

2008-03-28T08:58:00.001-07:00

The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) is a 15-metre submillimetre-wavelength telescope at Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii. It is the largest astronomical telescope in the world designed specifically to operate in the submillimetre regime (between the far-infrared and the microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum). It is used to study our Solar System, interstellar dust and gas, and distant galaxies.
The JCMT is funded by a partnership between the United Kingdom, Canada, and the Netherlands. It is operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre and was named in honour of James Clerk Maxwell. It is located near the summit of Mauna Kea at an altitude of 4092 meters as part of the Mauna Kea Observatory. The JCMT has the second largest telescope mirror on Mauna Kea (largest is the VLBA antenna).
This telescope was combined with the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory to form the first submillimeter interferometer. The success of this experiment was important in pushing ahead the construction of the Submillimeter Array and the Atacama Large Millimeter Array interferometers.

Instrumentation

Infrared astronomy
Submillimetre astronomy
Far infrared astronomy
Radio astronomy

2008-03-27T09:55:00.001-07:00

South Shore is one of 77 officially designated community areas of Chicago, Illinois in the United States. It is a predominately African American neighborhood, in recent years, the neighborhood has become more diverse, located on Chicago's southern lakefront. It is a relatively stable and gentrifying neighborhood that has generally been long neglected. Many middle-class people have re-settled in the neighborhood, restoring some of the most beautiful homes on the city's south side. Luxury condominium conversions are plentiful.
The jewel of the neighborhood is the South Shore Cultural Center, previously a country club. The South Shore Country Club began as a lakefront retreat for the wealthiest of Chicago's movers and shakers. Marshall and Fox, architects of the Drake, Blackstone, and Edgewater Beach Hotels, were hired to design an opulent, Mediterranean-style clubhouse for a membership that included Chicago's most prominent families. The grounds provided a private stable, beach, and golf course. Tennis, horseback riding, and skeet shooting were enjoyed by guests the likes of Jean Harlow, Will Rogers, and Amelia Earhardt. Between the first and second World Wars, a housing boom brought the development of luxury cooperative apartments and mansions to the neighborhood surrounding the club. In 1974 the club held its last members-only event. Today, the Chicago Park District owns the property. It has been restored to its original design and is now open to the public.
At the northern end of South Shore is the historic district Jackson Park Highlands which is one of Chicago's greatest examples of structural history and 19th-Century architecture, with an abundance of homes in the style of American Four-Square, Colonial Revival, and Renaissance Revival on suburban sized lots.
Located in the Bryn Mawr section of South Shore is the Allan Miller House located at 7121 South Paxton Avenue. Commissioned by advertising executive Allan Miller, this home is an excellent example of Prairie-style architecture. Built in 1915, it is Chicago's only surviving building designed by John Van Bergen, a former member of Frank Lloyd Wright's architecture firm.
Recently, a Starbucks has opened up a shop in South Shore, which has generally been a healthy indicator for an area's economic development.
South Shore has long been a popular neighborhood among the African American community because of its rich history and its proximity to downtown Chicago.

Jackson Park Highlands
South Shore Jackson Park

Official City of Chicago South Shore Community Map

2008-03-26T10:33:00.001-07:00

Saint Ludger (also Lüdiger or Liudger) (born at Zuilen near Utrecht about 742; died 26 March 809 at Billerbeck) was a missionary among the Frisians and Saxons, founder of Werden Abbey and first bishop of Münster in Westphalia.

Early life to ordination
After Ludger had been ordained at Cologne on 7 July 777 the missions of Ostergau (or Ostracha, i.e., East Frisia) were committed to his charge, of which missions Dokkum, the place of the martyrdom of Saint Boniface, was made the centre. Every autumn however he came back to Utrecht to teach at the cathedral school. He worked in this way for about seven years, until Widukind in 784 persuaded the Frisians to drive out the missionaries, burn the churches, and return to the pagan gods. Ludger escaped with his disciples.
Ludger escaped with his disciples, and in 785 visited Rome, where he was well received by Pope Adrian I, who gave him much advice and special faculties. From Rome he went to Monte Cassino, where he lived according to the Rule of Saint Benedict, but did not bind himself by vows. The news of Widukind's submission, and the arrival of Charlemagne at Monte Cassino in 787, put an end to Ludger's peaceful retirement. He was appointed missionary to five districts east of the river Lauwers, around the estuaries of the Hunze, the Fivel, and the Ems, which were still occupied almost entirely by pagans. He began his work armed with characteristic energy and faith in God, and had a significant advantage in that he knew the language and habits of the people, and put this knowledge to good use in achieving their conversion.
He worked in many places: the island of Bant, long since sunk beneath the sea, is mentioned as the scene of his apostolic work. He visited Heligoland (Fossitesland), where Saint Willibrord had preached, where he destroyed the remains of paganism and built a Christian church. The well, formerly sacred to the pagan gods, he re-dedicated as his baptismal font. On his return he met the blind bard Bernlef, last of the Frisian skalds, cured his blindness, and made him a devout Christian.

The Netherlands
In 793 Charlemagne wished to make Ludger Bishop of Trier, but he declined, while declaring himself willing to undertake the evangelization of the Saxons. Charlemagne accepted the offer, and north-western Saxony was thus added to Ludger's missionary field. The monastery of St. Ludger's Abbey at Helmstedt was founded as part of his missionary activity in this part of Germany. To meet necessary expenses the income of the Abbey of Leuze, in the present Belgian province of Hainaut, was given him, and he was told to pick his fellow-workers from the members of that abbey.
As Mimigernaford (also Mimigardeford or Miningarvard) had been designated the centre of the new district, Ludger built a monastery there, from which the place took the name of Münster. Here he lived with his monks according to the rule of Saint Chrodegang of Metz, which in 789 had been made obligatory in the Frankish territories. He also built a chapel on the left bank of the Aa in honour of the Blessed Virgin, as well as the churches of Billerbeck, Coesfeld, Hersfeld, Nottuln and others. Near the church of Nottuln he built a home for his sister, Saint Gerburgis, who had consecrated herself to God. Many other women soon joined her, and so originated the first convent in Westphalia (c. 803). Better known among his foundations, however, is the abbey at Werden, founded (after an abortive attempt to establish a religious house at Wichmond on the Erft) in c. 800 and consecrated in 804, on ground which Ludger himself had acquired, in fulfilment of his desire, formed since his stay at Monte Cassino, to found a Benedictine house.

Death and relics
The successive Vitae, beginning with the serious contemporary biographical work of Altfrid and passing through the Vita Secunda and Vita Tertia to the Libellus Monasteriensis de miraculis sancti Liudgeri (The Little Book of Münster on the Miracles of Saint Ludger) of c. 1170, demonstrate the growth of the legend. Votive practice in Münster seems to have focussed on a very large and elaborate cross containing a number of relics of the saint. The cult seems to have remained mostly local, and largely to have faded in the later Middle Ages.
Ludger is represented either as a bishop reciting his breviary or as standing between two geese (occasionally described as swans). Feast: 26 March.

2008-03-25T10:03:00.001-07:00

This article is about the Scottish football club. For the Maltese football club, see Hibernians F.C.
Hibernian Football Club (informally known as Hibs, Hibbies and Hibees) are a Scottish professional football club based in Leith, north Edinburgh. Along with city rivals Hearts, they represent Edinburgh in the Scottish Premier League. The club is currently managed by John Collins with Tommy Craig as his assistant.

History
On August 13, 1887, Hibernian defeated Preston North End in a match co-billed by the FA and SFA as the Association Football Championship of the World decider, due to the two teams' achievements in their respective domestic cup trophies.

"World Champions"
The team colours are emerald green and white. The strip has a green body, with white sleeves, a white collar, and green cuffs (on long sleeved tops). The shorts are white, and the socks are green with white tops.
Hibernian introduced white sleeves to their shirts on 13 August 1938 against Hamilton Accies after a major brightening up of Easter Road had taken place. The harp and shamrocks at the entrance had been repainted as had the stand and the wall round the pitch and the terracing barriers had all been painted white. The goalposts had been replaced with oval ones with green nets. On that day, Harry Swan addressed the large crowd over new loudspeakers about "the brighter Easter Road" before the team appeared in their new strip.
For the 2004/2005 season, the colour of the shorts was changed to a green which matches the shirt colour. This was done to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the club's 2-0 friendly win over Real Madrid, as this was the kit worn for this friendly match (to avoid a clash with Madrid's all-white).

Colours
Hibernian were the first British club to appear in European competition, when they were invited to play in the inaugrural Champions Cup in the 1955/56 season. Playing their first game against German side Rot-Weiss Essen, Hibernian won 4-0 in Essen and the return tie in Scotland ended in a 1-1 draw. Hibernian went on to reach the semi-finals, only to be defeated by a Stade de Reims side inspired by Raymond Kopa.

First British club in Europe
In 1977 Hibernian became the first prominant British club to have sponsorship on their shirts (the sponsor was Bukta). Strangely enough, Hibernian chairman Tom Hart had previously banned television cameras from Easter Road but when Hibs created shirt advertising the television companies boycotted Hibs. The eventual compromise was that Hibs wore purple shirts and then yellow shirts when TV cameras were present.

First Scottish club to have shirt advertising
In 1980 Hibernian were the first Scotish club to have undersoil heating installed at it's home ground Easter Road.

First Scottish club to have undersoil heating
The last major trophy won by the club was the 2007 League Cup, when they defeated Kilmarnock 5-1 in the final. They also reached the League Cup final in 2004, losing to Livingston. Hibernian have not won the Scottish Cup since 1902. Their last appearance in the final was a 3-0 loss to Celtic in 2001.
Hibernian's most recent relegation to the First Division came at the end of the 1997-98 season. They immediately won promotion back to the SPL, however, in the 1998-99 season, helped by a run of 12 wins in a row on as they were crowned First Division champions. They earned a record total of 89 points and finished 23 points ahead of second-placed Falkirk.

Recent history
Fans of Hibernian have recently developed a connection with Dutch Eredivisie side FC Groningen. The unofficial connection between the teams was started by fans of both teams who have visited the other's matches.

Link with Groningen
Hibs' traditional local rivals in the city of Edinburgh are Hearts.
The first "official" derby match was on Christmas Day 1875, when Hearts beat Hibernian 1–0. It wasn't until their five-game struggle for the EFA Cup in 1878, that the two clubs became the dominant ones in Edinburgh. Hearts won 3–2 after 0–0, 1–1, 1–1 and 1–1 draws. The clubs' most notable meeting occurred in the 1896 Scottish Cup Final, played on 14 March 1896, Hearts winning 3-1 at Logie Green in the only final played outside Glasgow.
For more detailed information on this rivalry, please see the separate Edinburgh derby article.

Rivalry
Tony Mowbray was appointed Hibs manager on 24 May 2004, replacing the unpopular Bobby Williamson. Mowbray placed an emphasis on playing attacking, passing football, despite the relative youth of the team and the pressure for results.

Tony Mowbray era
These policies were rewarded with a 3rd place finish in Mowbray's first season as manager (2004-05), and a place in the UEFA Cup for the following season (2005-06). Hibs reached the semi-final stage of the Scottish Cup where they lost 1-2 to Dundee United, despite taking the lead early in the second half.

2004-05 season
In the 2005-06 season, Hibs got off to an excellent start, winning 10 of their first 14 league games. This form led to speculation by some commentators that they could put in a challenge for the championship, but Tony Mowbray played down the club's chances, pointing to the lack of squad depth and the much higher budgets of Rangers, Celtic and Hearts. Highlights of the season included three consecutive victories over Rangers and a 2-0 victory over Hearts, ending Hearts' unbeaten start to the league. The lost 3-0 to Dunfermline Athletic in the League Cup. They showed promising signs in the Scottish Cup, beating Arbroath 6-0, Rangers 3-0 and Falkirk 5-1, but were well beaten 0-4 by City rivals Hearts in the semi-final at Hampden Park.

2005-06 season
For further information, see Hibernian FC season 2006-07.

2006-07 under Mowbray
Following media speculation about Falkirk manager John Hughes, Cowdenbeath manager Mixu Paatelainen and Nottingham Forest coach Ian McParland, it was announced on 31 October 2006 that John Collins would be the new manager, with Tommy Craig as assistant manager.

John Collins
For further information, see Hibernian FC season 2006-07.

2006-07 under John Collins
For further information, see Hibernian FC season 2007-08.

2007-08
The club's name is almost universally shortened to Hibs. However, the team are also often known by their fans by the nickname "the Hibees" (pronounced "high-bees"). Hibs supporters are known as "Hibbies" (singular: "Hibby"). Also many fans call them "The Cabbage", as per the Cockney Rhyming Slang "The Cabbage And Ribs" after which a pub in Albert Street, Edinburgh was named.

Managers
As of 7 September 2007.

Players

Current squad

Players out on loan
The most famous group of Hibs players were the "Famous Five" forward line of the late 1940s and early 1950s: Gordon Smith, Bobby Johnstone, Lawrie Reilly, Eddie Turnbull and Willie Ormond. This group led Hibs to three league championships between 1948 and 1952.
The next most famous group of Hibs players was "Turnbull's Tornados", managed by Eddie Turnbull, including players such as Pat Stanton, Alan Gordon, Joe Harper, John Blackley, John Brownlie, Des Bremner and Erich Schaedler. This group led Hibs to a League Cup win in 1972 and two Drybrough Cup wins.
Other notable players have included Joe Baker, Peter Cormack and Peter Marinello in the 1960s; Alan Rough and Gordon Durie in the 1980s; and John Collins, Andy Goram and Jim Leighton in the 1990s. Former Manchester United player George Best was with the club for half a season, playing 22 games and scoring 3 goals.
Notable Hibs players since 2000 include:

Russell Latapy - Trinidad and Tobago World Cup player (2006), now with Falkirk
Franck Sauzée - former France international and European Cup winner (with Olympique Marseille), now retired
Ulises de la Cruz - Ecuador World Cup player (2002 & 2006), now with Reading
Ian Murray - Scotland international, now with Norwich City
Garry O'Connor - current Scotland international, now with Birmingham City
Derek Riordan - Scotland international, now with Celtic
Gary Caldwell - current Scotland international, now with Celtic
Kevin Thomson - former club captain and Scotland under-21 international, now with Rangers
Chris Killen - current New Zealand international, now with Celtic
Scott Brown - current Scotland international, now with Celtic
Ivan Sproule - current Northern Ireland international, now with Bristol City
Steven Whittaker - Scotland under-21 international, now with Rangers Famous players
The club has been mentioned in many works of literature, mainly by local authors. The works of author Irvine Welsh (Trainspotting) contain several references to Hibernian, presumably due to his being a native of Leith. The team is often mentioned in casual conversation and is the team many of his characters support. There are many references to Hibernian's firm support. Visual references to Hibs are noticeable in the films adapted from his works. More observant persons would have spotted many images of Hibernian in Danny Boyle's film, Trainspotting, such as Begbie wearing a Hibs shirt while he plays five-a-side. During the famous baby on the ceiling/detox scene, many posters and pictures of Hibernian can be seen on the walls of Mark Renton's bedroom.
In the final short film in the trilogy The Acid House, with the same title as the movie, Coco Bryce, a boy from the "Hibs firm", is struck by lightning while under the influence of LSD in a Pilton park only to have his soul transferred to the body of an unborn child from one of the more affluent areas of Edinburgh. The final scene of the movie is that of Coco in the baby's body strapped to his mother's back with a Hibs top in the pub chanting "Oo to, oo to be, oo to be a Hibee".
Hibernian are also frequently referred to in the Inspector Rebus detective series by Ian Rankin. In the later books, Rebus's colleague DS Siobhan Clarke is a season ticket holder at Easter Road. In the 2006 television adaptation of the series, Rebus (a Raith Rovers fan in the books) is the Hibs fan.
In their song "Cap in Hand", from the album Sunshine on Leith (1988), The Proclaimers sing, "I can understand why Stranraer lie so lowly / They could save a lot of points by signing Hibs' goalie". The title track from this album has become a Hibs anthem, and is traditionally played before matches at Easter Road.

In popular culture

Highest home attendance: 65,860 vs Hearts; 2 January 1950
Record fee paid - £750k for Ulises de la Cruz in 2000 from Deportivo Quito Club records
Hibs last won the Scottish Cup with a 1-0 victory over Celtic on 26 April 1902. They have been in 10 finals and 19 semi-finals. Hibs have played a record 333 games in the competition without winning the competition. Dumbarton and Queen's Park have gone longer since their last wins, but have played fewer matches in the intervening period.
Sat 12 February 1887
Hibernian
2
Dumbarton
1
Sat 14 March 1896
Hibernian
1
Heart of Midlothian
3
Sat 26 April 1902
Hibernian
1
Celtic
0
Sat 11 April 1914
Hibernian
0
Celtic
0
Thu 16 April 1914
Hibernian
1
Celtic
4
Sat 31 March 1923
Hibernian
0
Celtic
1
Sat 19 April 1924
Hibernian
0
Airdrieonians
2
Sat 19 April 1947
Hibernian
1
Aberdeen
2
Sat 26 April 1958
Hibernian
0
Clyde
1
Sat 6 May 1972
Hibernian
1
Celtic
6
Sat 12 May 1979
Hibernian
0
Rangers
0
Wed 16 May 1979
Hibernian
0
Rangers
0
Mon 28 May 1979
Hibernian
2
Rangers
3
Sat 26 May 2001
Hibernian
0
Celtic
3

Scottish Cup finals
NB Hibs won the 1943-44 Southern League Cup vs Rangers 6-5 on corners after the game ended 0-0.
28 October 1950
Hibernian
0
Motherwell
3
5 April 1969
Hibernian
2
Celtic
6
9 December 1972
Hibernian
2
Celtic
1
26 October 1974
Hibernian
3
Celtic
6
27 October 1985
Hibernian
0
Aberdeen
3
27 October 1991
Hibernian
2
Dunfermline Athletic
0
24 October 1993
Hibernian
1
Rangers
2
14 March 2004
Hibernian
0
Livingston
2
18 March 2007
Hibernian
5
Kilmarnock
1

Honours

Hibernian FC season 2006-07
Hibernian FC season 2007-08

2008-03-24T10:12:00.001-07:00

Ecological genetics is the study of genetics in the context of the interactions among organisms and between the organisms and their environment. While molecular genetics studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level, ecological genetics (and the related field of population genetics) studies phenotypic evolution in natural populations of organisms. Research in this field is of traits of ecological significance — that is, traits related to fitness, which affect an organism's survival and reproduction (e.g., flowering time, drought tolerance, sex ratio).
Studies are often done on insects and other organisms that have short generation times, and thus evolve at fast rates.

History
Although work on natural populations had been done previously, it is acknowledged that the field was founded by the English biologist E.B. Ford (1901-1988) in the early 20th century. Ford was taught genetics at Oxford University by Julian Huxley, and started research on the genetics of natural populations in 1924. Ecological Genetics is the title of his 1964 'magnum opus' on the subject (4th ed 1975). Other notable ecological geneticists would include Theodosius Dobzhansky who worked on chromosome polymorphism in fruit flies. As a young researcher in Russia, Dobzhansky had been influenced by Sergei Chetverikov, who also deserves to be remembered as a founder of genetics in the field, though his significance was not appreciated until much later.
Philip Sheppard, Cyril Clarke, Bernard Kettlewell and A.J. Cain were all strongly influenced by Ford; their careers date from the post WWII era. Collectively, their work on lepidoptera, and on human blood groups, established the field, and threw light on selection in natural populations where its role had been once doubted.
Work of this kind needs long-term funding, as well as grounding in both ecology and genetics. These are both difficult requirements. Research projects can last longer than a researcher's career; for instance, research into mimicry started 150 years ago, and is still going strongly. Funding of this type of research is still rather erratic, but at least the value of working with natural populations in the field cannot now be doubted.
More detail on Ecological genetics may be obtained in Polymorphism (biology).

2008-03-23T10:03:00.001-07:00

Strathfield is an Inner West suburb of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Strathfield is located 14 kilometres west of the Sydney central business district and is the administrative centre of the local government area of the Municipality of Strathfield. Part of the suburb also sits in the local government area of the City of Canada Bay. North Strathfield and Strathfield South are separate suburbs, to the south.
Strathfield is bounded by the suburbs of Burwood to the east, Concord, North Strathfield and Homebush to the north, Enfield, Strathfield South to the south and Rookwood Cemetery to the west.

History
Strathfield is known as a regional centre for education and Strathfield railway station is a transport hub. Strathfield town centre contains Strathfield Plaza shopping centre and a small strip of shops, restaurants, cafes and a Police shopfront.
The square precinct has become a relatively regular shooting location for the ABC comedy's The Chaser's War on Everything vox pop interviews.
Strathfield Square
The Boulevarde
Whelans Hotel, Everton Road

Commercial Area
Strathfield railway station is a major interchange on the CityRail network and for buses serving the inner west. The M4 Western Motorway begins at Strathfield and heads west to Parramatta, Blacktown and Penrith. Parramatta Road links Strathfield east to Burwood and the Sydney CBD and west to Parramatta.

Transport
The suburb is home to a significant number of schools. Independent schools include:
There are also a number of state schools in the area:
The suburb is also home to two tertiary institutions, a campus of Australian Catholic University, the former home of the Christian Brothers novitiate and Catholic Teachers' College. The Catholic Institute of Sydney, where priests for the Archdiocese of Sydney are trained, is located on the site of the old Australia Post training centre.
Santa Sabina College
Santa Sabina College
Santa Sabina College
Santa Sabina College
Holyrood, Santa Sabina College
Santa Sabina College
Santa Sabina College
Brunyarra, Santa Maria Del Monte
Lauriston, Santa Maria Del Monte
Meriden Anglican School, Redmyre Road
St Patrick's College from Kessel Square
St Marthas Catholic School
Catholic Institute
Catholic Institute

St Patrick's College (5-12)
Santa Sabina College (7-12)
Santa Maria Del Monte, the junior school of Santa Sabina College (K-6)
Meriden Anglican School for Girls (K-12)
St Martha's Catholic Primary School (K-6)
Sydney Adventist College (7-12)
Trinity Grammar Preparatory School (K-6)
Strathfield Girls High (7-12)
Strathfield South High (7-12)
Strathfield South Public School (K-6)
Homebush Boys High (7-12)
Homebush Public School (K-6) Churches
Strathfield has a mixture of residential developments from detached houses, flats and high-rise apartments. Strathfield is renowned for heritage properties from Victorian, Federation, Interwar period architecture, Californian Bungalows and also more modern forms of architecture. Strathfield is also known for its newer McMansion style houses that have been built over the last decade, particularly in areas such as Newton Road.
Glen Luna, Carrington Avenue
Raw Square
Raw Square

Houses

Population
According to the 2006 census, Strathfield had a total population of 24,859 people. It is one the most culturally-diverse suburbs in Sydney, particularly so in the high-density housing regions around Strathfield railway station. Ancestry of residents is Chinese 18.7%, Australian 13.0%, English 9.4%, Indian 8.7%, Italian 6.7%, Other or undeclared 43.5%. Source: 2006 census
Overall, 49.1% of the Strathfield population was born overseas, 5.6% from China and 4.9% from India. It has undergone a major cultural shift over the past ten years, especially through the huge influx of Korean migrants. While the 1996 census did not specifically state the number of residents born in Korean, they comprised 9.1% of all residents in 2001. (Source: Dictionary of Sydney)

Demographics

Prime Ministers (George Reid, Billy Hughes and Frank Forde)
NSW Premier James McGirr
Test cricketers (Bob Simpson and Alan Davidson)
Singer/songwriters and international pop-stars The BeeGees, (who lived in Redmyre Road early in their career). Culture

Strathfield Massacre
History of Strathfield, New South Wales

2008-03-22T10:02:00.001-07:00

Located in Point Loma, a neighborhood of San Diego, California, Naval Base Point Loma (NBPL) consists of 9 geographically separated complexes to include Subase, DFSP Fuel Farm, Bayside, Topside, Seaside, C3F Complex, Fleet ASW, Fleet Intelligence Training Center Complex, Old Town Complex, Taylor Street Complex, Mt. Soledad and Miramar Brig. NBPL provides shore installation support to more than 64 tenant commands with 22,000 military and civilian personnel and more than 450 unique facilities.

2008-03-21T08:42:00.001-07:00

The marriage penalty in the United States refers to the higher taxes required from some married couples, where spouses are making approximately the same taxable income, filing one tax return ("married filing jointly") than for the same two people filing two separate tax returns (as single, not "married filing separately"). The percentage of couples affected has varied over the years, depending on shifts in tax rates.
The source of this increase in taxes has its roots in the progressive tax-rate structure in income-tax laws, that is, a higher income pays a higher rate of tax. In such a context income averaging is advantageous to the taxpayer. E.g. two persons, one making $80,000 and the other making $20,000 in a particular year, will pay a larger combined tax than they would if both had an income of $50,000 in the same year.
Married couples normally combine their income which, when the spouses' monetary incomes are disparate, affords them the advantage of this income averaging. To compensate for this somewhat, the U.S. income tax law provides for somewhat higher tax rates on that averaged income (married couples pay more than twice the tax of a single person making half of the income) for the "married filing jointly" taxpayer class. So although couples with disparate incomes (which is the case for a stay-at-home spouse married to a "breadwinner") will gain a tax advantage from the income averaging, married couples having roughly equal personal incomes gain nothing from such income averaging yet remain subject to the higher tax bracket (for "married filing jointly") and thus pay more total tax than they would as two single persons.
Occasionally, this "marriage penalty" has become a campaign issue for various candidates and there have been piecemeal laws enacted to reduce it, none completely successfully.

This so-called marriage penalty showed up in 1969, when Congress tried to equalize what was then an unfair advantage couples held over single taxpayers. [1]
Several years ago, forty-two percent of married taxpayers paid more because they were filing jointly than they would have if they remained single, according to a 1996 Congressional Budget Office analysis. The average penalty was a significant $1,380. [2] Several pieces of legislation have been passed since the late nineties to do away with these penalties. However, through passing those pieces of legislation, the tax system is now such that many couples will experience a marriage benefit.

2008-03-20T09:57:00.001-07:00

Tobias Vincent Maguire (born June 27, 1975) is an American actor. He began his career in the 1990s, and has since become best known for his role as Peter Parker/Spider-Man in the Spider-Man film series.

Maguire was born in Santa Monica, California. His father, Vincent Maguire, was a construction worker and a cook. His mother, Wendy Brown, is a secretary turned screenwriter and producer.

In Ultimate Spider-Man #54-59 (Hollywood), an unauthorized film is in production about Spider-Man with Doctor Octopus as the main villain. The film's male lead Tobey Maguire, Bruce Campbell, director Sam Raimi and Marvel-movie head Avi Arad appear in cameo roles.
When the writers of the Spider-Girl comic book series first introduced the character of Reilly Tyne/Darkdevil, he is described by Peter Parker in the comic as looking "just like Tobey Maguire", a deliberate nod to Maguire's involvement in the Spider-Man films. Deadpool, who often breaks the fourth wall, recapped the events of the ongoing Marvel Civil War in Cable & Deadpool #31, saying, "And the Boy Scout branch made a big show of cooperating, by having Spider-Man reveal his identity on national TV... as if we hadn't seen the movies already and didn't know it was dreamy doe-eyed Tobey Maguire under the mask!"
In Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man #12 Spider-Man/Peter is quoted as saying to the Principal "Well You Want Acting...Go Get Tobey Maguire", a nod to him being played by Tobey in the movies.

The Wizard (1989) (uncredited) Lucas' goon at Video Armageddon
Great Scott! (1992) (TV series) Scott Melrod
This Boy's Life (1993) Chuck Bolger
Healer (1994) Teenager
Revenge of the Red Baron (1994) Jimmy Spencer
Empire Records (1995) (scenes deleted) Andre
Joyride (1996) J.T
The Ice Storm (1997) Paul Hood
Deconstructing Harry (1997) Harvey Stern/Harry's Character
Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998) Hitchhiker
Pleasantville (1998) David
Ride with the Devil (1999) Jake Roedel
The Cider House Rules (1999) Homer Wells
Wonder Boys (2000) James Leer
Don's Plum (2001) (shot 1995-1996, premiere 2001, blocked in U.S. and Canada by DiCaprio and Maguire, black and white) Ian
Cats & Dogs (2001) Lou the Beagle (voice)
Spider-Man (2002) Peter Parker/Spider-Man
Seabiscuit (2003) Red Pollard
Spider-Man 2 (2004) Peter Parker/Spider-Man
The Good German (2006) Lt. Patrick Tully
Spider-Man 3 (2007) Peter Parker/Spider-Man
Quiet Type (2007)
Cats & Dogs 2: Tinkles' Revenge (2007) Lou the Beagle (voice)
Tokyo Suckerpunch (2008) Billy Chaka
Spider-Man 4 (2010) Peter Parker/Spider-Man
Tobey Maguire at the Internet Movie Database
MisterMaguire.com

2008-03-19T09:52:00.001-07:00

Joel Reuben Madden (born March 11, 1979) is the lead vocalist for the band Good Charlotte.
Madden was born in Waldorf, Maryland USA. He attended La Plata High School in La Plata, Maryland. Madden has an older brother named Joshua, who is a DJ, and a younger sister named Sarah. He also has a twin brother named Benji Madden who plays guitar in Good Charlotte. They also now live on the same street in Glendale, California.

Clothing lines
Madden dated Hilary Duff for two and a half years before their relationship ended in November 2006. Later that year in December 2006, Joel and Nicole Richie became a couple. In June and July, 2007, numerous media outlets were stating that Nicole was pregnant with Joel's baby. These rumors were unadressed by the couple until July 31, 2007 when they confirmed in an interview with Diane Sawyer that Nicole Richie is nearly 4 months pregnant with Madden's child.

2008-03-18T09:57:00.001-07:00

Concepts Movement Theory Film theory Economics Feminist sexology Women's rights Pro-feminism Anti-feminism History Women's history Feminist history History of feminism Suffrage Women's suffrage Timeline Suffragette New Zealand U.K. U.S. Waves of Feminism First Second Third Subtypes
Amazon Anarchist Black Chicana Christian Cultural Difference Eco Equity Equality Fat Gender Individualist Islamic Jewish Lesbian Liberal Marxist New Postcolonial Postmodern Pro-life Radical Religious Separatist Sex-positive Socialist Third world Trans Womanism By country or region
France Indonesia Iran Latin America Nicaragua Norway U.K. U.S.A. Lists Feminists Literature Topics Pro-feminism refers to support of the cause of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement. The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of feminism and of efforts to bring about gender equality. A number of pro-feminist men are involved in political activism, most often in the areas of women's rights and violence against women.
There are pro-feminist men's groups in most nations in the Western world. The activities of pro-feminist men's groups include anti-violence work with boys and young men in schools, offering sexual harassment workshops in workplaces, running community education campaigns, and counseling male perpetrators of violence.
Pro-feminist men also are involved in men's health, activism against pornography including anti-pornography legislation, men's studies, the development of gender equity curricula in schools, and many other areas. This work is sometimes in collaboration with feminists and women's services, such as domestic violence and rape crisis centers.
The term "pro-feminist" is also sometimes used by people who hold feminist beliefs or who advocate on behalf of feminist causes, but who do not consider themselves to be feminists, per se. It is also used by those who do not identify with, or wish for others to identify them with, the feminist movement.
Some activists of both genders will not refer to men as "feminists" at all, and will refer to all pro-feminist men as "pro-feminists", even if the men in question refer to themselves as "feminists". There is also criticism from the 'other side' against "pro-feminist" men who refuse to identify as feminist.
Most major feminist groups, most notably the National Organization for Women and the Feminist Majority Foundation, refer to male activists as feminists rather than as pro-feminists.

2008-03-17T09:58:00.001-07:00
National variations
In the United States, each individual state has its own law governing their formation. Limited liability partnerships emerged in the early 1990s: while only two states allowed LLPs in 1992, over forty had adopted LLP statutes by the time LLPs were added to the Uniform Partnership Act in 1996.
Although found in many business fields, the LLP is an especially popular form of organization among professionals, particularly lawyers, accountants and architects. In some U.S. states, namely California, New York, Oregon and Nevada,, LLPs can only be formed for such professional uses.
The liability of the partners varies from state to state. Section 306(c) of the Revised Uniform Partnership Act (1997)(RUPA) (a standard statute adopted by a majority of the states) grants LLPs a form of limited liability similar to that of a corporation:
An obligation of a partnership incurred while the partnership is a limited liability partnership, whether arising in contract, tort, or otherwise, is solely the obligation of the partnership. A partner is not personally liable, directly or indirectly, by way of contribution or otherwise, for such an obligation solely by reason of being or so acting as a partner.
However, a sizable minority of states only extend such protection against negligence claims, meaning that partners in an LLP can be personally liable for contract and intentional tort claims brought against the LLP. While Tennessee and West Virginia have otherwise adopted RUPA, their respective adoptions of Section 306 depart from the uniform language, and only a partial liability shield is provided.
As in a partnership or limited liability company (LLC), the profits of an LLP are allocated among the partners for tax purposes, avoiding the problem of "double taxation" often found in corporations.
Some US states have combined the LP and LLP forms to create limited liability limited partnerships.

United States
Starting a business and incorporating an LLP, or any other company in the EU: http://ec.europa.eu/youreurope/nav/en/business/life-events/start/index.html,
See also: http://ec.europa.eu/youreurope/nav/en/business/life-events/start/companies-legalstructure/index_en.html

European Union
In the United Kingdom LLPs are governed by the Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2000. A UK Limited Liability Partnership is a Corporate body - that is to say, it has a continuing legal existence independent of its Members, as compared to a Partnership which may (in England and Wales they do not) have a legal existence dependent upon its Membership.
A UK LLP's members have a collective ("Joint") responsibility, to the extent that they may agree in an "LLP agreement", but no individual ("several") responsibility for each other's actions. As with a limited liability company or a corporation Members in an LLP cannot, in the absence of fraud or wrongful trading, lose more than they invest.
A UK LLP is tax transparent or pass-through for tax purposes, that is to say it pays no tax but its Members do in relation to the income or gains they receive through the LLP.
It is a unique entity in its synthesis of collective and individual rights and responsibilities and its infinite flexibility - there is in fact no requirement for the LLP agreement even to be in writing because simple partnership-based regulations apply by way of default provisions.
It has to date been closely replicated by Japan - see below - and by the financial centres of Dubai and Qatar. It is perhaps closest in nature to a limited liability company in the United States of America although it may be distinguished from that entity by the fact that the LLC, while having a legal existence independent of its Members is not technically a Corporate body because its legal existence is time limited and therefore not "continuing". See also EUROPEAN UNION (EU) above.

United Kingdom
Limited liability partnerships (有限責任事業組合, yūgen sekinin jigyō kumiai
A Japanese LLP is not a corporation, but rather exists as a contractual relationship between the partners, similarly to an American LLP. Japan also has a type of corporation with a partnership-styled internal structure, called a godo kaisha, which is closer in form to a British LLP or American limited liability company.

Japan
See Société En Participation See also EUROPEAN UNION (EU) above.

France
See Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung NOTE: A Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung(GmbH), is NOT a LLP, but a corporation. See also EUROPEAN UNION (EU) above.

India
See also EUROPEAN UNION (EU) above. See Societate civilă profesională cu răspundere limitată

2008-03-16T09:40:00.001-07:00

A church is an association of people who share a particular belief system. The term church originated from Greek "karakion", meaning "of the lord". The term later began to replace the Greek ekklesia and Basilicae within Christendom, c. AD 300, though it was used by Christians before that time.

Origins
Many believe the Church, as described in the Bible, has a twofold character that can be described as the visible and invisible church. As the Church invisible, the church consists of all those from every time and place, who are vitally united to Christ through regeneration and salvation and who will be eternally united to Jesus Christ in eternal life. The Church visible consists of all those who visibly join themselves to a profession of faith and gathering together to know and serve the Head of the Church, Jesus Christ. The visible church exists globally in all who identify themselves as Christians and locally in particular places where believers gather for the worship of God. The visible church may also refer to an association of particular churches from multiple locations who unite themselves under a common charter and set of governmental principles. The church in the visible sense is often governed by office-bearers carrying titles such as minister, pastor, teacher, elder, and deacon.
Others make the claim that no reference to the church is ever made in the Bible that is not referring to a local visible body, such as the church in someone's house or the church as Ephesis. Those that make this claim believe that the term is sometimes used in an institutional sense in which the term refers to all of a certain type, meaning all of the local visible churches.
Church is taken by some to refer to a single, universal community, although others contend that the doctrine of the universal church was established until later. The doctrine of the universal, visible church was made explicit in the Apostles' Creed, while the less common Protestant notion of the universal, invisible church is not laid out explicitly until the Reformation. The universal church traditions generally espouse that the Church includes all who are baptized into her common faith, including the doctrines of the trinity, forgiveness of sins through the sacrificial action of Christ, and the resurrection of the body. These teachings are expressed in liturgy with the celebration of sacraments, visible signs of grace. They are passed down as the deposit of faith.
Major forms of church government include hierarchical (Roman Catholic, Anglican, Eastern Orthodoxy), presbyterian (rule by elders), and independent (Baptist, charismatic, other forms of independency).

2008-03-15T09:49:00.001-07:00

Division No. 1, Newfoundland and Labrador is a census division covering the entire Avalon Peninsula including the Isthmus of Avalon of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Like all census divisions in Newfoundland and Labrador, but unlike the census divisions of some other provinces, the division exists only as a statistical division for census data, and is not a political entity.
The area has the largest population of the province, totaling 248,418 in 2006. The total land area is 9,218.43 square kilometers. The coast of the Avalon Peninsula is inundated by four main bays and a number of smaller bays. The four main bays are; Trinity Bay, Conception Bay, St. Mary's Bay and Placentia Bay. The largest bay would be Placentia Bay.
The capital St. John's, of the province is located in this division along with the second largest of the three cities of the province, Mount Pearl. The majority of the towns and villages are located along the coast in much of the four main bays as mentioned.
Towns include: Admirals Beach, Aquaforte, Arnold's Cove, Avondale, Bauline, Bay Bulls, Bay Roberts, Bay de Verde, Bay Roberts, Biscay Bay, Bishop's Cove, Branch, Brigus, Bryant's Cove, Cape Broyle, Carbonear, Chance Cove, Chapel Arm, Clarke's Beach, Colinet, Colliers, Come By Chance, Conception Bay South, Conception Harbour, Cupids, Fermeuse, Ferryland, Flatrock, Fox Harbour, Gaskiers, Hant's Harbour, Harbour Grace, Harbour Main-Chapel's Cove-Lakeview, Heart's Content, Heart's Delight-Islington, Heart's Desire, Holyrood, Logy Bay-Middle Cove-Outer Cove, Long Harbour-Mount Arlington Heights, Mount Carmel-Mitcells Brook-St. Catherines, New Perlican, Norman's Cove-Long Cove, North River, Old Perlican, Paradise, Petty Harbour-Maddox Cove, Placentia, Point Lance, Point Kirwan, Portugal Cove South, Portugal Cove-St. Philip's, Pouch Cove, Renews, Riverhead, Salmon Cove, Small Point-Adam's Cove-Blackhead-Broad Cove, South River, Southern Harbour, Spaniard's Bay, St. Bride's, St. Joseph's, St. Mary's, St. Shott's, St. Vincent's-St. Stephen's-Peter's RIver, Sunnyside, Torbay, Trepassey, Upper Island Cove, Victoria, Wabana, Whitbourne, Whiteway, Winterton and Witless Bay.
Unorganized Subdivisions:

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2008-03-14T08:49:00.001-07:00

Capoeira (IPA: [ka.pu.ˈej.ɾɐ]) is an Afro-Brazilian blend of martial art, game, and culture created by enslaved Africans in Brazil during the 16th Century.

History
The derivation of the word "Capoeira" is under dispute, as there are several possibilities:
A Capoeira "fight" is one that implies that the purpose is a pretend cockfight, whereby men participate to show off their skills rather than fighting to actually kill or harm an opponent. Though this gymnastic almost dance-like display can appear to be a fight, participants are expected to restrain themselves from inflicting grievous harm upon one another. Hence, all participants are reminded by the word Capoeira, that the intent of the "fight" should remain one with the restraint of the show-off, yet castrated, rooster called Capão. These showy cock like fights are mock fights of skill between performing "capão" in the mock cockfight pen known as the "Capoceira". Capoeira is an extreme display of a cockfight-like competition of one-up-man-ship between show-off cocky "roosters" absent deadly intent.
"Capoeira" has several meanings, including any kind of pen where poultry is kept, a fowl similar to a partridge, and a basket worn on the head by soldiers defending a stronghold. "Capoeira" is also what people used to call a black inlander who mugged travelers. Etymology

Main article: Capoeira music Music
The "roda" is the circle of people within which capoeira is played. People who make up the roda's circular shape clap and sing along to the music being played for the two partners engaged in a capoeira "game" ("jogo"). In some capoeira schools an individual in the audience can "buy in" to engage one of the two players and begin another game.
The minimum roda size is usually a circle of about 3 metres (10 feet) in diameter. They are often larger, up to 10 metres in diameter (30 feet). The rhythm being played on the berimbau sets the pace of the game being played in the roda. Slow music limits the game to slow yet complex ground moves and handstands.
Hits usually aren't made but feigned or just shown, although this depends directly on the rhythm played by the berimbaus. In some rhythms (e.g., Benguela) strikes are generally shown but not finished while in others (e.g., São Bentro Grande da Regional) the players have more freedom to strike each other. Slow games are often seen as finesse games, less impressive for the casual viewer. Faster music allows for more circular momentum which is key to gaining "big air" in the roda. Note, however, that it is the specific toque played on the berimbau, regardless of its speed, which dictates the type of game to be played.
For the participants, the roda is a microcosm of life and the world around them. Most often in the roda, the capoeirista's greatest opponent is himself. Philosophy plays a large part in capoeira and the best teachers strive to teach Respeito (Respect), Responsabilidade (Responsibility), Segurança (Safety/Security), Malicia (Cleverness/Street-smarts), and Liberdade (Liberty/Freedom).
Modern capoeira is often criticized by more traditional practitioners of capoeira as being in the process of losing its "playfulness" and dialogue, in the sense that many capoeiristas tend to focus more on impressive acrobatics or the martial elements than the playful interaction with the other player in the roda. Dominance in the roda is as much psychological and artistic as it is a question of who winds up tumbling to the floor.
Capoeira is uniquely social. Networking with other groups and students from other teachers can teach a capoeirista more about the art and improve their skills.

The capoeira roda
See also: List of capoeira techniques
Capoeira does not focus on injuring the opponent. Rather, it emphasizes skill. Capoeiristas often prefer to show the movement without completing it, enforcing their superiority in the roda. If an opponent cannot dodge a slow attack, there is no reason to use a faster one. Each attack that comes in gives players a chance to practice an evasive technique.

The Jogo
The ginga (literally: rocking back and forth; to swing) is the fundamental movement in capoeira. Capoeira Angola and capoeira regional have distinctive forms of ginga. Both are accomplished by maintaining both feet approximately shoulder-width apart and then moving one foot backwards and then back to the base, describing a triangular 'step' on the ground. This movement is done to prepare the body for other movements.
The rest of the body is also involved in the ginga: coordination of the arms (in such a way as to prevent the body from being kicked), torso (many core muscles may be engaged depending on the player's style), and the leaning of the body (forward and back in relation to the position of the feet; the body leans back to avoid kicks, and forward to create opportunities to show attacks). The overall movement should match the rhythm being played by the bateria.

Ginga
Capoeira primarily attacks with kicks, sweeps, and head strikes. Some schools teach punches and hand strikes, but they are not as common. Some scholars. Knee strikes are sometimes seen. Capoeira also uses acrobatic and athletic movements to maneuver around the opponent. Cartwheels called "aú" (a very common acrobatic movement), handstands (bananeira), headspins (pião de cabeça), hand-spins (pião de mão), hand-springs (gato), sitting movements, turns, jumps, flips (mortal), and large dodges are all very common in capoeira though vary greatly depending on the form and rhythm. Fakes and feints are also an extremely important element in capoeira games and the setting of "traps" or illusory movements are very common.

Attacks
Capoeira defenses consists of evasive moves and rolls. A series of ducks called esquivas, which literally means "escape", are also staple of a capoeiristas' defensive vocabulary. There are typically different esquivas for every step of the Ginga, depending on the direction of the kick and intention of the defender. A common defense is the rolê, which is a rolling move that combines a duck and a low movement. This move allows the defensive player to quickly evade an attack and position themselves around the aggressor in order to lay up for an attack. It is this combination of attacks and defense which gives a game of capoeira its perceived 'fluidity' and choreography.
Other evasive moves such as rasteira, vingativa, tesoura de mão or queda allow the capoeirista to move away or dangerously close in an attempt to trip up the aggressor in the briefest moment of vulnerability (usually in a mid-kick.)

Defenses
There are also styles of moves that combine both elements of attack and defense. An example is the au batido. The move begins as an evasive cartwheel which then turns into a blocking/kick, either as a reflexive response to a blocking move from the opposing player or when an opportunity to do so presents itself, e.g., at an opponent's drop of guard. Two kicks called meia lua de compasso and armada are usually combined to create a double spinning kick.

Combinations
The Chamada is a ritual that takes place within the game of Capoeira Angola. Chamada means 'call', and consists of one player 'calling' their opponent to participate in the ritual. There is an understood dialogue of gestures of the body that are used to call the opponent, and to signal the end of the ritual. The ritual consists of one player signalling, or calling the opponent, who then approaches the player and meets the player to walk side by side within the roda. The player who initiated the ritual then decides when to signal an end to the ritual, whereby the two players return to normal play. The critical points of the chamada occur during the approach, and the chamada is considered a 'life lesson', communicating the fact that the approach is a dangerous situation. Approaching people, animals, or life situations is always a critical moment when one must be aware of the danger of the situation. The purpose of the chamada is to communicate this lesson, and to enhance the awareness of people participating in the ritual.
During the ritual, after the opposing player has appropriately approached the caller of the chamada, the players walk side by side inside the circle in which the game is played. This is another critical situation, because both players are now very vulnerable due to the close proximity and potential for surprise attack.
Experienced practitioners and masters of the art will sometimes test a student's awareness by suggesting strikes, head-butts, or trips during a chamada to demonstrate when the student left themselves open to attack. The end of a chamada is called by the player that initiated the ritual, and consists of a gesture inviting the player to return to normal play. This is another critical moment when both players are vulnerable to surprise attack.
The chamada can result in a highly developed sense of awareness and helps practitioners learn the subtleties of anticipating another person's intentions. The chamada can be very simple, consisting solely of the basic elements, or the ritual can be quite elaborate including a competitive dialogue of trickery, or even theatric embellishments.

Chamada
Volta ao mundo means 'around the world'.
The volta ao mundo takes place after an exchange of movements has reached a conclusion, or after there has been a disruption in the harmony of the game. In either of these situations, one player will begin walking around the perimeter of the circle, and the other player will join the 'around the world' before returning to the normal game.

Volta ao mundo
As students master the basic moves, their game naturally acquires a more cunning slant as they begin to perfect the art of trickery, or malandragem. This involves a lot of improvisation and modifications of basic moves into a flurry of feints and fakes to trick the opponent into responding wrongly. These attempts can be blatant or subtle at discretion of the players. Effective malandragem lies in the development of sharp observation skills and a keen innate ability to anticipate the moves of the opponent and prepare an appropriate response. Some capoeiristas take this aspect of the art to heights akin to the guile of theatrics and drama. Games displaying elaborate performances and even staging skits reenacting historic cultural aspects of capoeira are commonly demonstrated amongst the most learned of the arts.

Malandragem
Capoeira has two main classifications: traditional and modern. Angola refers to the traditional form of the game. This is the oldest form, approximately 500 years old. Modern forms of capoeira can be classified as Regional and Contemporanea.

Styles of capoeira

Main article: Capoeira Angola Capoeira Angola
Regional is a newer form of Capoeira. Regional was developed by Mestre Bimba to make capoeira more mainstream and accessible to the public, and less associated with the criminal elements of Brazil. The regional style is most often composed of fast and athletic play.
Later, so called modern regional came to be (see the next section about capoeira Contemporânea). Developed by other people from Bimba's regional, this type of game is characterized by high jumps, acrobatics, and spinning kicks. This regional should not be confused with the original style created by Mestre Bimba.
Regional ranks capoeiristas (capoeira players) by ability, denoting different skill with the use of a corda (colored rope, also known as cordel or cordão) worn as a belt. Angola does not use such a formal system of ranking, relying instead upon the discretion of a student's mestre. In both forms, though, recognition of advanced skill comes only after many years of constant practice.

Capoeira Regional
Contemporânea is a term for groups that train multiple styles of capoeira simultaneously. Very often a students of Capoeira Contemporânea train elements of Regional and Angola as well as newer movements that would not fall under either of those styles. This is controversial because many practitioners argue that a capoeirista should have a working knowledge of traditional and modern capoeira, and encourage training both forms simultaneously. This is an issue of great disagreement amongst capoeiristas.
The label contemporânea also applies to many groups who do not trace their lineage through Mestre Bimba or Mestre Pastinha and do not strongly associate with either tradition.
In recent years, the various philosophies of modern capoeira have been expressed by the formation of schools, particularly in North America, which focus on, and continue to develop their specific form of the modern art. This has become a defining characteristic of many schools, to the point that a seasoned student can sometimes tell what school a person trains from, based solely on the way they play the game. Some schools teach a blended version of the many different styles. Traditionally, rodas in these schools will begin with a period of Angola, in which the school's mestre, or an advanced student, will sing a ladainha, (a long, melancholy song, often heard at the start of an Angola game). After some time, the game will eventually increase in tempo, until, at the mestre's signal, the toque of the berimbaus changes to that of traditional Regional.
Each game, Regional and Angola stresses different strengths and abilities. Regional emphasizes speed and quick reflexes, whereas Angola underscores a great deal of thought given to each move, almost like a game of chess. Schools that teach a blend of these try to offer this mix as a way of using the strengths of both games to influence a player.

Capoeira Contemporânea

Main article: Capoeira in popular culture Capoeira in popular culture
The concept of "whitening", "embranquecimento", or "bleaching", was discussed widely beginning of the nineteenth century throughout Brazil. Even though this concept was intended to combat the racist view of Brazil by European theorists, this whitening theory — which was supported mainly by the Brazilian elites at the time — was founded on racist assumptions of white supremacy. Whitening influenced the art in at least two ways, demographically and aesthetically, and the practice of Capoeira Regional demonstrates the "embranquecimento" or "whitening" of values or style. For example, observers constantly describe Capoeira as "clean" in relation to whitening, and modern-day capoeira consist of flowing movements, uniforms, and accepted rules are required to be abided to.

Whitening
Capoeira regional groups periodically hold Batizados ("baptisms" into the art of capoeira). Members being "baptized" are normally given a corda (cord belt) and an apelido (capoeira nickname) if they haven't already earned one. Batizados are major events to which a number of groups and masters from near and far are normally invited. Sometimes a Batizado is also held in conjunction with a Troca de Corda (change of belts), in which students already baptized who have trained hard and been deemed worthy by their teachers are awarded higher-ranking belts as an acknowledgment of their efforts. Such ceremonies provide opportunities to see a variety of different capoeira styles, watch mestres play, and see some of the best of the game. Sometimes they are open to the public.
Batizados and Trocas de Corda do not occur in capoeira Angola, which does not have a system of belts. However, some contemporary schools of capoeira have combined the study of both arts and may require their students to be learned in the ways of capoeira Angola before being awarded a higher belt.

Special events

Related activities

Main article: Samba Samba de roda

Main article: Maculelê (dance) Puxada de rede
See also: Category:Capoeira Mestres

Manuel dos Reis Machado, A founder of the regional style, and one of the foremost authorities on capoeira.
Vicente Ferreira Pastinha, a founder of the first organized Angola academy Important Mestres

List of capoeira techniques
Capoeira music
Capoeira toques
Malicia Notes

Almeida B. (1986). Capoeira, a Brazilian Art Form: History, Philosophy, and Practice (2nd ed.). North Atlantic Books. ISBN 0-938190-29-6
Assunção, Matthias Röhrig (2005). Capoeira: A History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art, Sport in the Global Society. London: Routledge. ISBN 0714680869.
The Art of Capoeira- short BBC article on Capoeira
Chvaicer, Maya Talmon (2002), "The Criminalization of Capoeira in Nineteenth-Century Brazil," Hispanic American Historical Review 82.3: 525-547.
Downey, Greg (2002). "Listening to Capoeira: Phenomenology, Embodiment, and the Materiality of Music". Ethnomusicology 46 (3): 487-509. ISSN 00141836.
Downey, Greg (2005). Learning Capoeira: Lessons in Cunning from an Afro-Brazilian Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195176979.
Fryer, Peter. Rhythms of resistance: African musical heritage in Brazil. The University press of New England, 2000.
Gambrelle, Fabienne "Julien apprenti capoeira", Paris: Capoeira Paname Editions, 2005, ISBN 2-9523680-0-7
Grupo De Capoeira Angola Pelourinho, Capoeira Angola from Brazil, Smithsonian Folkways, 1996.
Grupo de Capoeira Angola Pelourinho, Capoeira Angola, Vol. 2 - Brincandoo Na Roda, Smithsonian Folkways, 2003.
Holloway, Thomas H. (November, 1989) "'A Healthy Terror': Police Repression of Capoeiras in Nineteenth-Century Rio de Janeiro," Hispanic American Historical Review 69.4: 637-676.
Lewis, J. Lowell (1992). Ring of Liberation: Deceptive Discourse in Brazilian Capoeira. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226476839.
Mansouri, Arno (2005). Capoeira, Bahia. Editions Demi-Lune. ISBN 2-9525571-0-1 Bilingual (French and English)
Nestor Capoeira. (2002). Capoeira: Roots of the Dance-Fight-Game. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 1-55643-404-9
Röhrig Assunção, Matthias (2004) Capoeira: The History of Afro-Brazilian Martial Art. Routledge ISBN 0-7146-5031-5
Taylor, Gerard (2005). Capoeira: The Jogo de Angola from Luanda to Cyber Space. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 1-55643-601-7