This article deals with Darwin's life during the period from 1859 to 1861, including immediate reactions to his publication of The Origin of Species
. For the modern controversy see Creation-evolution controversy. The
reaction to Darwin's theory came quickly after the
publication of Darwin's theory which had followed twenty years of
development of Darwin's theory of
evolution.
Charles Darwin's work led to the publication of his controversial book
On the Origin of Species.
This article includes the context of his life, work and outside influences at the time.
See inception of Darwin's theory, development of Darwin's theory and publication of Darwin's theory for events leading up to this article, and Darwin from Orchids to Variation for the following period. Background Darwin now worked on an "abstract" trimmed from his
Natural Selection. The publisher agreed the title as
On the Origin of Species through Natural Selection and the book went on sale to the trade on
22 November 1859. The stock of 1,250 copies was oversubscribed, and Darwin, still at
Ilkley spa town, began corrections for a second edition. The novelist
Charles Kingsley, a Christian socialist country rector, sent him a letter of praise: "It awes me...if you be right I must give up much that I have believed", it was "just as noble a conception of Deity, to believe that He created primal forms capable of self development... as to believe that He required a fresh act of intervention to supply the lacunas which He Himself had made." Darwin added these lines to the last chapter, with attribution to "a celebrated author and divine".
Publication of The Origin of Species The reviewers were less encouraging. The authoritative
Athenaeum was quick to pick out the unstated implications of "men from monkeys", saw snubs to theologians, summing up his "creed" as man "was born yesterday – he will perish tomorrow" and demanding that Darwin should be tried "in the Divinity Hall, the College, the Lecture Room and the Museum". The
Saturday Review realised that this academic treatise was already "into the drawing-room and the public street", and there were reports of commuters outside
Waterloo station buying copies.
By
9 December when Darwin left
Ilkley to come home, he had been told that Murray was organising a second run of 3,000 copies. Hooker had been "converted", Lyell was "absolutely gloating" and Huxley wrote "with such tremendous praise", advising that he was sharpening his "beak and claws" to disembowel "the curs who will bark and yelp".
First reviews Richard Owen had been the first to respond to the complimentary copies, courteously claiming that he had long believed that "existing influences" were responsible for the "ordained" birth of species. Darwin now had long talks with him, and Owen said that the book offered the best explanation "ever published of the manner of formation of species", though he still had the gravest doubts that transmutation would bestialize man. It appears that Darwin had assured Owen that he was looking at everything as resulting from designed laws, which Owen interpreted as showing a shared belief in "Creative Power".
Darwin made his views clearer to others, telling Lyell that if each step in evolution was providentially planned, the whole procedure would be a miracle and natural selection superfluous. To
Asa Gray he suggested "designed laws" with "the details, whether good or bad, left to the working out of what we may call chance", and asked, if everything were "ordained", why was there so much misery? "I cannot persuade myself that a beneficent and omnipotent God would have designedly created the Ichneumonidae with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of Caterpillars.", expressing his particular revulsion at the
parasitic wasps that lay their eggs in the larvae and pupae of other insects so that their
parasitoid young have a ready source of food.
First response The review in the British
Unitarian National Review was written by Darwin's old friend
William Carpenter, who was clear that only a world of "order, continuity, and progress" befitted an Omnipotent Deity and that "any theological objection" to a species of slug or a breed of dog deriving from a previous one was "simply absurd" dogma. He touched on human evolution, satisfied that the struggle for existence tended "inevitably... towards the progressive exaltation of the races engaged in it".
On
Boxing Day (26 December)
The Times carried an anonymous review. The staff reviewer, "as innocent of any knowledge of science as a babe", gave the task to Huxley, leading Darwin to ask his friend how "did you influence Jupiter Olympus and make him give three and a half columns to pure science? The old fogies will think the world will come to an end." Darwin treasured the piece more than "a dozen reviews in common periodicals", but noted "Upon my life I am sorry for Owen... he will be so d--d savage, for credit given to any other man, I strongly suspect, is in his eyes so much credit robbed from him. Science is so narrow a field, it is clear there ought to be only one cock of the walk!".
Hooker also wrote a favourable review, which appeared at the end of December in the
Gardener's Chronicle and treated the theory as an extension of
horticultural lore.
Friendly reviews In his lofty position at the head of Science, Owen received numerous complaints about the book. The
Revd. Adam Sedgwick, geologist at the
University of Cambridge who had taken Darwin on his first geology field trip, could not see the point in a world without providence. The missionary
David Livingstone could see no struggle for existence on the
African plains.
Jeffries Wyman at
Harvard saw no truth in chance variations.
The most enthusiastic response came from atheists, with
Hewett Watson hailing Darwin as the "greatest revolutionist in natural history of this century". The 68 year old
Robert Edmund Grant, who had shown him the study of invertebrates when Darwin was a student at the
University of Edinburgh and who was still teaching
Lamarckian evolution weekly at
University College, London, brought out a small book on classification dedicated to Darwin: "With one fell-sweep of the wand of truth, you have now scattered to the winds the pestilential vapours accumulated by 'species-mongers'."
As
1860 began, more opinions were voiced.
Karl Marx saw it as a "bitter satire" that showed "a basis in natural science for class struggle in history", in which "Darwin recognises among beasts and plants his English society".
Clerical concern, atheist enthusiasm Darwin's brother
Erasmus thought it "the most interesting book I have ever read", and sent a copy to his old flame Miss
Harriet Martineau who at 58 was still reviewing from her home in the
Lake District. From her "snow landscape" Martineau sent her thanks, adding that she had previously praised "the quality & conduct of your brother's mind, but it is an unspeakable satisfaction to see here the full manifestation of its earnestness & simplicity, its sagacity, its industry, & the patient power by which it has collected such a mass of facts, to transmute them by such sagacious treatment into such portentious knowledge. I should much like to know how large a proportion of our scientific men believe he has found a sound road."
Writing to her fellow
Malthusian (and atheist)
George Holyoake she enthused "What a book it is! – overthrowing (if true) revealed Religion on the one hand, & Natural (as far as Final Causes & Design are concerned) on the other. The range & mass of knowledge take away one's breath." To
Fanny Wedgwood she wrote "I rather regret that C.D. went out of his way two or three times to speak of "The Creator" in the popular sense of the First Cause.... His subject is the "Origin of Species" & not the origin of Organisation; & it seems a needless mischief to have opened the latter speculation at all – There now! I have delivered my mind."
Erasmus and Martineau The Revd.
Adam Sedgwick had received his copy "with more pain than pleasure." Without Creation showing divine love, "humanity, to my mind, would suffer a damage that might brutalise it, and sink the human race". He indicated that unless Darwin accepted God's revelation in nature and scripture, Sedgwick would not meet Darwin in heaven, a sentiment that upset
Emma. The Revd.
John Stevens Henslow, the botany professor whose natural history course Charles had joined thirty years earlier, gave faint praise to the
Origin as "a stumble in the right direction" but distanced himself from its conclusions, "a question past our finding out".
The
Anglican establishment was opposed to Darwin. Apparently
Palmerston, who became Prime Minister in June 1859, mooted Darwin's name to
Queen Victoria as a candidate for the Honours List with the prospect of a
knighthood. While
Prince Albert supported the idea, after the publication of the
Origin her ecclesiastical advisers including the
Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce were opposed, and the request was turned down. Some Anglicans were more in favour, and Huxley reported of Kingsley that "He is an excellent Darwinian to begin with, and told me a capital story of his reply to Lady Aylesbury who expressed astonishment at his favouring such a heresy – "What can be more delightful to me Lady Aylesbury, than to know that your Ladyship & myself sprang from the same toad stool." Whereby the frivolous old woman shut up, in doubt whether she was being chaffed or adored for her remark."
Clerical reaction In February, Huxley lectured at the
Royal Institution on
Darwin's theory of Species and Races, and their Origin, using the occasion to goad the clergy and try to wrest science from ecclesiastical control. He referred to
Galileo's persecution by the church, which he described as "
Canutes of the hour enthroned in solemn state, bidding the great wave to stay.", and said that the
Origin heralded a "new
Reformation". To Darwin such rhetoric was "time wasted", but by March he was listing those on "our side" as against the "outsiders". His close allies were Hooker and Huxley, whom he called his "good and kind agent for the propagation of the Gospel – i.e. the devil's gospel."
The position of
Richard Owen was unknown: when emphasising to a Parliamentary committee the need for a new Natural History museum, he pointed out that "The whole intellectual world this year has been excited by a book on the origin of species; and what is the consequence? Visitors come to the British Museum, and they say, "Let us see all these varieties of pigeons: where is the tumbler, where is the pouter?" and I am obliged with shame to say, I can show you none of them".... As to showing you the varieties of those species, or of any of those phenomena that would aid one in getting at that mystery of mysteries, the origin of species, our space does not permit; but surely there ought to be a space somewhere, and, if not in the British Museum, where is it to be obtained?"
However, Huxley's attacks were making their mark. When Owen's review of the
Origin appeared in the April
Edinburgh Review he showed his anger at what he saw as Darwin's caricature of the creationist position and his ignoring Owen's
axiom of the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of living things. To him, new species appeared at birth, not through natural selection. As well as attacking Darwin's "disciples" Hooker and Huxley for their "short sighted adherence", he thought that the book symbolised the sort of "abuse of science... to which a neighbouring nation, some seventy years since, owed its temporary degradation." After reading this, Darwin spent a sleepless night and called it "Spiteful, extremely malignant, clever, and... damaging". Later he got together with Huxley and Hooker "so we three enjoyed it together", and commented to Henslow that "The Londoners say he is mad with envy because my book is so talked about. It is painful to be hated in the intense degree with which Owen hates me."
Huxley's April review in the
Westminster Review included the first mention of the term "
Darwinism" and called the
Origin a "
Whitworth gun in the armoury of
Liberalism" projecting "the dominance of Science" over "regions of thought into which she has, as yet, barely penetrated."
Huxley and Owen Most reviewers wrote with great respect, deferring to Darwin's eminent position in science though finding it hard to understand how natural selection could work without a divine selector, leading Darwin to remark "I must be a very bad explainer". His older friends were often negative and he felt the attacks were coming down "hot and heavy". He remarked to Lyell "I suppose "Natural Selection" was a bad term" and suggested "Natural Preservation" as a better alternative, but (perhaps reacting to the mood) Lyell read his handwriting as "Natural Persecution".
Darwin had already written thanking
Asa Gray for his support; "For myself, also, I rejoice profoundly; for, thinking of so many cases of men pursuing an illusion for years, often and often a cold shudder has run through me, and I have asked myself whether I may not have devoted my life to a phantasy. Now I look at it as morally impossible that investigators of truth, like you and Hooker, can be wholly wrong, and therefore I rest in peace." He now discussed the arguments: "About the weak points I agree. The
eye to this day gives me a cold shudder, but when I think of the fine known gradations, my reason tells me I ought to conquer the cold shudder." "I remember well the time when the thought of the eye made me cold all over, but I have got over this stage of the complaint, and now small trifling particulars of structure often make me feel uncomfortable. The sight of a feather in a peacock's tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick!"
Interest was widespread. Three publishers tried to exploit the absence of international
copyright to print
Origin in the
USA, but
Asa Gray managed to make two withdraw and agreed a 5 per cent royalty with
Appleton's of
New York, who published a print run of 2,500 copies in May. A well pleased Darwin offered Gray a share of the proceeds, writing "I never dreamed of my book being so successful... [Once] I should have laughed at the idea of sending the sheets to America".
Widespread interest Debate Around February
1860 liberal theologians entered the fray, when seven produced a manifesto titled
Essays and Reviews. These
Anglicans included Oxford professors, country clergymen, the headmaster of
Rugby school and a layman. Their declaration that miracles were irrational stirred up unprecedented anger, drawing much of the fire away from Darwin.
Essays sold 22,000 copies in two years, more than the
Origin sold in twenty years, and sparked five years of increasingly polarised debate with books and pamphlets furiously contesting the issues.
The most scientific of the seven was the Reverend
Baden Powell, who held the
Savilian Chair of Geometry at the
University of Oxford. Referring to "Mr Darwin's masterly volume" and restating his argument that God is a lawgiver, miracles break the lawful edicts issued at Creation, therefore belief in miracles is atheistic, he wrote that the book "must soon bring about an entire revolution in opinion in favour of the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature." He drew attacks, with Sedgwick accusing him of "greedily" adopting nonsense and
Tory reviews saying he was joining "the infidel party". He would have been on the platform at the British Association debate, facing the bishop, but died of a heart attack on
11 June.
Essays and Reviews The most famous confrontation took place at a meeting of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science in
Oxford on Saturday
30 June 1860. While there was no formal debate organised on the issue, Professor
John William Draper of
New York University was to talk on Darwin and social progress at a routine "Botany and Zoology" meeting. The new museum hall was crowded with clergy, undergraduates, Oxford dons and gentlewomen anticipating that
Samuel Wilberforce, the
Bishop of Oxford, would speak to repeat the savage trouncing he had given in
1847 to the
Vestiges published anonymously by
Robert Chambers. Owen lodged with Wilberforce the night before, but Wilberforce would have been well prepared as he had just reviewed the
Origin for the Tory
Quarterly for a fee of £60. Hooker was not going to wait for the meeting, but met Chambers who accused him of "deserting them" and drifted in. Darwin was taking treatment at Dr. Lane's new
hydropathic home in
Richmond.
From Hooker's account, Draper "droned on for an hour", then for half an hour "Soapy Sam" Wilberforce replied with the eloquence that had earned him his nickname. This time the climate of opinion had changed and the ensuing debate was more evenly matched, with Hooker being particularly successful in defence of Darwin's ideas. In response to what Huxley took as a jibe from Wilberforce as to whether it was on Huxley's grandfather's or grandmother's side that he was descended from an ape, Huxley made a reply which he later recalled as being that "[if asked] would I rather have a miserable ape for a grandfather or a man highly endowed by nature and possessed of great means & influence & yet who employs these faculties & that influence for the mere purpose of introducing ridicule into a grave scientific discussion I unhesitatingly affirm my preference for the ape" (from other accounts Huxley was almost inaudible with rage and several alternative versions of this supposed quote exist, see
Wilberforce and Huxley: A Legendary Encounter).
Unfortunately
Robert FitzRoy, who had been the captain of
HMS Beagle during Darwin's voyage, was there to present a paper on storms. During the debate FitzRoy, seen by Hooker as "a grey haired Roman nosed elderly gentleman", stood in the centre of the audience and "lifting an immense Bible first with both and afterwards with one hand over his head, solemnly implored the audience to believe God rather than man". As he admitted that the
Origin of Species had given him "acutest pain" the crowd shouted him down.
Hooker's "blood boiled, I felt myself a dastard; now I saw my advantage–I swore to myself I would smite that
Amalkite Sam Hip & thigh", he was invited up to the platform and "there & then I smacked him amid rounds of applause...proceeded... to demonstrate that he could never have read your book... wound up with a very few observations on the old & new hypotheses... Sam was shut up... & the meeting was dissolved forthwith leaving you [Darwin] master of the field after 4 hours battle."
Both sides came away claiming victory, with Hooker and Huxley each sending Darwin rather contradictory triumphant accounts. Supporters of Darwinism seized on this meeting as a symbolic confrontation between science and religion. The story spread around the country: Huxley – as "Darwin's bulldog", the fiercest defender of evolutionary theory on the Victorian stage – had said he would rather be an ape than a Bishop.
Wilberforce's Quarterly review The
Natural History Review was bought and refurbished by Huxley, Lubbock, Busk and other "plastically minded young men" – supporters of Darwin. The first issue in January
1861 carried Huxley's paper on man's relationship to apes, "showing up" Owen. Huxley cheekily sent a copy to Wilberforce.
Natural History Review As the battles raged, Darwin returned home from the spa to proceed with experiments on
chloroforming carnivorous sundew plants, revising his
Natural Selection book and reopening his work on pigeon breeding. He wrote to
Asa Gray using the example of fantail pigeons to argue that contrary to Gray's belief "that variation has been led along certain beneficial lines" was incorrect in its implication of Creationism rather than Natural Selection.
Over the winter he organised a third edition of the
Origin, adding an introductory historical sketch. Asa Gray had published three supportive articles in the
Atlantic Monthly. Darwin persuaded Gray to publish them as a pamphlet, and was delighted when Gray came up with the title of
Natural Selection Not Inconsistent with Natural Theology. Darwin paid half the cost, imported 250 copies into Britain and as well as advertising it in periodicals and sending 100 copies out to scientists, reviewers, and theologians (including Wilberforce), he included in the
Origin a recommendation for it, available to be purchased for 1s. 6d. from Trübner's in Paternoster Row.
The Huxleys became close family friends, frequently visiting
Down House. When their 3 year old son died of scarlet fever they were badly affected. Henrietta Huxley brought their three infants to Down in March
1861 where Emma helped to console her, while Huxley continued with his working-men's lectures at the
Royal School of Mines, writing that "My working men stick with me wonderfully, the house fuller than ever, By next Friday evening they will all be convinced that they are monkeys."
Arguments with Owen
See also
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(2 years)
Medication
Honey
Spike Jones and His Other Orchestra
Size
Notable former players
counted for the domestic league only.
* Appearances (Goals)
Attractions